Macartney Embassy
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The Macartney Embassy, also called the Macartney Mission, was a British embassy to China in 1793. It is named for the first envoy of Great Britain to China, George Macartney, who led the endeavor. The goal of the embassy was to convince Emperor Qianlong of China to ease restrictions on trade between Great Britain and China by allowing Great Britain to have a permanent embassy in Beijing, possession of "a small unfortified island near Chusan for the residence of British traders, storage of goods, and outfitting of ships", and reduced tariffs on traders in Guangzhou.
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[edit] Background
The Canton commercial system of trade had been in place informally since the 17th century. Essentially, the guidelines restricted formal trade to being conducted through a handful of merchants selected by the government. These were commonly called Hong merchants. As trade intensified, disputes broke out between the British traders and the Hong merchants. This forced local authorities to issue edicts formalizing the system of trade and its restrictions.
By the late 18th century, the British traders were feeling confined by the restrictive system. In an attempt to gain greater trade rights, they lobbied for an Embassy to go before the Emperor and make requests. The first Embassy, the Cathcart Embassy of 1788, was called off with the sudden death of Cathcart before his arrival in China. Another Embassy was quickly organized, with Lord Macartney as its head.
[edit] Preparation
The Chinese Empire had always considered all other states to be tributary to itself. However, the Macartney Embassy was given special notice for two reasons. First, it was sent by Britain on the pretext of commemorating the Emperor's 80th birthday. Second, the Embassy had traveled a great distance, and had not previously come before the Emperor's Court. The matter was complicated somewhat by the Embassy's insistence on meeting with the Emperor without previous announcement, and Macartney's refusal to observe Court traditions. Nonetheless, the Emperor instructed his officials to lead the Embassy to him with the utmost civility.
[edit] Outcome
The embassy was ultimately a failure. This was not due to Macartney's refusal to kowtow in the presence of the Chinese emperor, as is commonly believed. It was also not a result of the Chinese reliance on tradition in dictating foreign policy but rather a result of competing world views that were incompatible. The increased presence of foreigners in the royal court would have undermined the idea of the Mandate of Heaven, as it was understood by the Chinese. After the conclusion of the embassy, Qianlong sent a letter to King George III, explaining in greater depth the reasons for his refusal to grant the requests of the embassy.[1]
The Macartney Embassy is historically significant because it marked a missed opportunity by the Chinese to move toward greater trade with the Western world, and thus, toward industrialization. This failure to industrialize early would continue to plague the Qing Dynasty as it encountered increasing foreign resistance and internal unrest during the 19th century.
The painter William Alexander accompanied the embassy, and published numerous valuable paintings. He is sometimes described as the first image reporter of all times.[1]
[edit] Notes
- ^ Images de l'Empire immobile, Alain Peyrefitte, Fayard, 1990, p.9. Original French: "Son ardeur et son courage nous valent le premier reportage en image de tous les temps."
[edit] References
- Cranmer-Byng, J. L. "Lord Macartney’s Embassy to Peking in 1793." Journal of Oriental Studies. 4.1,2 (1957-58): 117-187.
- Esherick, Joseph W. "Cherishing Sources from Afar." Modern China 24, no. 2 (1998): 135-61.
- Hevia, James Louis. Cherishing Men from Afar: Qing Guest Ritual and the Macartney Embassy of 1793. Durham: Duke University Press, 1995.
- Peyrefitte, Alain. The Immobile Empire. Translated by Jon Rotschild. New York: Knopf: Distributed by Random House, 1992.
