List of calypso-like genres

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The Caribbean music area is home to a number of music genres that share certain characteristics that are often compared to the calypso music of Trinidad, and can be considered calypso-like. These genres are united by an Afro-Caribbean heritage, a vocal emphasis on rhythmic, alliterative and rhyming texts with political, complimentary, derisive, erotic, satirical or humorous tones. Puns, plays on words and allusions are common. They use rhythms derived from West Africa, with cut time, and feature dance as an important component.^[1] Some of these genres are competitive and are performed at Carnival or other celebrations, and many are improvised. These calypso-like genres are most often compared to calypso, or occasionally Jamaican mento, however, they are all interrelated and no one of them could be considered the root of the others. Calypso and mento are the most well-studied of the calypso-like genres, and are known to have evolved in a parallel and mutually interrelated fashion; elements of calypso came to be used in mento, and vice versa, while their origins lay in the Afro-Caribbean culture, each uniquely characterized by influences from the Shango and Shouters religions of Trinidad and the Kumina spiritual tradition of Jamaica.^[2]

Since calypso became a major part of international popular music in the mid-20th century, the word's geographic connotations have varied. During the 1950s, pop singers like Harry Belafonte were well-known in the United States, though many, like Belafonte, were not Trinidadian. Calypso's roots were frequently ascribed to the Bahamas, Jamaica, Bermuda or the Virgin Islands; though this process accelerated with the popularization of calypso, it can be traced back to at least 1859, when a visiting ornithologist in Trinidad ascribed calypso's origins in British ballads.^[3] The Jamaican mento style has an especially long history of conflation with Trinidadian calypso.^[4] Some scholars have concluded that calypso's roots can be traced across the Caribbean and beyond, from the Bahamas to mainland South America; others, however, consider it an exclusively Trinidadian phenomenon, since exported to all of these places. The fundamental disagreement is over the nature of calypso itself; Caribbean Creole cultures share a common heritage that mixes several mostly interrelated African groups with British, French and other European cultures, and the indigenous societies of the Caribbean basin. Many elements of what is now considered calypso can be traced back to the time when these cultures began mixing, and evolving into distinct song forms which spread to other parts of the Caribbean music area, and thus musical influences and developments were traded in all directions. Trinidad's contribution to this tradition came to be called calypso.^[5] To what precise degree these other song forms can be considered influenced by calypso, or vice versa, rather than simply originating from a similar mix of cultures, is probably unknowable given the lack of detailed musicological data from the relevant period; however, it is clear that they share common relations and have influenced each other in many ways and directions.^[3]

[edit] Calypso-like genres

• Calypso is a Trinidadian music, which traditionally uses a slow tempo to accompany vocalist-composers, or calypsonians. Songs are often improvised and humorous, with sexual innuendo, political and social commentary, and picong, a style of lyricism that teases people in a light-hearted way. Calypso is competitively performed in calypso tents at Carnival.^[6]

• Bari is a festival, dance, drum and song type from the Dutch Antillean island of Bonaire. It is led by a single singer, who improvises. Lyrics often concern local figures and events of importance.^[7]

• Benna is an uptempo Antiguan folk song, also spelled bennah and known as ditti. It is characterized by lyrics that focus on scandalous gossip, performed in a call-and-response style. It has also been a means of folk communication, spreading news and political commentary across the island.^[8]

• Big Drum is a style found in Saint Vincent and the Grenadines and elsewhere in the Windward Islands, especially Carriacou. It is accompanied by drums traditionally made from tree trunks, though rum kegs are now more common. Satirical and political lyrics are common, performed by a female singer called a chantwell and accompanied by colorfully costumed dancers. Big Drum is performed at celebrations like weddings and the launchings of new boats.^[9]

• Cariso or careso is a Virgin Islander song form, which is now entirely performed for special holiday and appreciation or education events, by folkloric ensembles. It is similar to quelbe in some ways, but has more sustained syllables, a more African melodic style and an all female, call and response format with lyrics that function as news and gossip communicator, also commemorating and celebrating historical events.^[10]

• Cariso is a kind of Trinidadian folk music, and an important ancestor of calypso music. It is lyrically topical, and frequently sarcastic or mocking in the picong tradition, and is sung primarily in French by singers called chantwells. Cariso may come from carieto, a Carib word meaning joyous song, and can also be used synonymously with careso.^[11]

• Chanté mas (masquerade song) is a tradition from the music of Dominica, based in Carnival celebrations and performed by groups of masquerading partygoers. They use the call-and-response format, and lyrics are often light-hearted insulting, and discuss local scandals and rumors.^[12]

• Jwé is a kind of rural music from Saint Lucia, performed informally at wakes, beach parties, full moon gatherings and other events, including débòt dances. Jwé uses raunchy lyrics and innuendos to show off verbal skills, and to express political and comedic commentaries on current events and well-known individuals. One well-known technique that has entered Lucian culture is lang dévivé, which is when the singer says the opposite of his true meaning.^[13]

• Mento is a form of Jamaican folk music that uses topical lyrics with a humorous slant, commenting on poverty and other social issues. Sexual innuendos are also common.^[6][5] Mento was strongly influenced by calypso, the musical traditions of the Kumina religion and Cuban music.^[2] During the mid-20th century, mento was conflated with calypso, and mento was frequently referred to as calypso, kalypso and mento calypso; mento singers frequently used calypso songs and techniques.^[4]

• Plena is a form of topical Puerto Rican song that comments on current scandals and politics, and is used to spread news across the island.^[6]

• Quelbe is a form of Virgin Islander folk music that originated on St. Croix, now most commonly performed by groups called scratch bands. Traditionally, however, quelbe was performed informally by solo singers at festivals and other celebrations. Hidden meanings and sexual innuendos were common, and lyrics focused on political events like boycotts.^[14]

• Quimbe is a topical song form from the Dutch Antillean St Maarten. It traditionally accompanies the ponum dance and drumming, but is now often performed without accompaniment. Lyrics include gossip, news and social criticism, and use clever puns and rhymes. Performance is often competitive in nature.^[15]

• Shanto is a form of Guyanese music, related to both calypso and mento,^[16] and became a major part of early popular music through its use in Guyanese vaudeville shows; songs are topical and light-hearted, often accompanied by a guitar.^[17]

• Tumba is a style of Curaçao music, strongly African in origin, despite the name's origin in a 17th century Spanish dance. Traditional tumba is characterized by scandalous, gossipping and accusatory lyrics, but modern tumba often eschews such topics. It is well-known abroad, and dates to the early 19th century. It is now a part of the Carnival Road March.^[18]

Other genres share characteristics with calypso, and may or may not share a historical relationship. The styles listed above are characterized by a common origin, several shared descriptors and similar cultural functions. Calypso has also been compared with disparate genres ranging from hip hop to samba, and has a clear historical relationship to styles like soca and rapso. The word caliso refers to topical songs in the dialect of Saint Lucia, and may be linguistically related to the word calypso.^{[3] [19]}

[edit] References and notes