Legislative Assemblies of the Roman Republic
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According to the contemporary historian Polybius, it was the people (and thus the assemblies) who had the final say regarding the election of magistrates, the enactment of new laws, the carrying out of capital punishment, the declaration of war and peace, and the creation (or dissolution) of alliances. Under the Constitution of the Roman Republic, the people (and thus the assemblies) held the ultimate source of sovereignty.[1]
The importance of the People of Rome in the Roman state can be seen in the symbol of Roman state authority, Senatus Populusque Romanus ("The Senate and the People of Rome", or "SPQR"). This was the stamp of power, authority and approval (political as well as religious) that the Roman legions and their golden eagles marched under as they conquered the Mediterranean world.[2]
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[edit] Comitia, Concilium, Conventio
There were two primary types of assembly. The first was the comitia (literaly "going together"). The word comitia is itself plural, with its singular form (comitium) simply meaning "meeting place". [3] Comitia ("committees") were assemblies of all citizens (populus Romanus).[4] Comitia were used for official purposes, such as for the enactment of laws. Acts of a comitia applied to all of the members of that comitia (and thus, to all of the People of Rome).
The second type of assembly was the concilium ("council"). Concilium were forums where specific groups of people would meet for an official purpose (such as to enact a law).[4] For example, the concilium plebis would be a concilium where plebeians would meet.[5] Acts of a concilium would only apply to the members of that particular concilium. This is why, for example, acts of the plebeian concilium (plebiscita) originally applied only to plebeians.
In contrast to the comitia and the concilium, the conventio (literally "coming together") were unofficial forums for communication. Conventio ("conventions") were simply forums where Romans would meet for specific unofficial purposes, They might, for example, gather to hear a political speech. [3] Individuals could only speak before a conventio (and not before a comitia or a concilium).[6] Conventio were simply meetings, rather than any mechanism through which to make legal decisions. As such, the voters would first assemble into conventio to hear debates and conduct other business before voting. After this was complete, the voters would assemble into comitia or concilium to actually vote.[7]
[edit] Assembly procedure
Only one assembly could operate at any given point in time.[8] If a session was already underway, it could be dissolved if a magistrate "called away" (avocare) the electors. An assembly could be dissolved by any magistrate, so long as that particular magistrate outranked the magistrate who was presiding over the given assembly.[8]
[edit] From announcement to vote
A notice would always have to be given several days before the assembly was to actually vote. For elections, at least three market-days (often more than seventeen actual days) had to pass between the announcement of the election, and the actual election. This time period, known as a trinundinum, was the point at which the candidates would interact with the electorate. During this time period, no legislation could be proposed or voted upon. In 98 BC, the lex Caecilia Didia required a trinundinum to pass between the proposal of a law, and the vote on that law.[8]
When an assembly was being used to conduct a trial, the presiding magistrate had to give a notice (diem dicere) to the accused person on the first day of that trial's investigation (anquisito). At the end of each day, the magistrate had to give another notice to the accused person (diem prodicere). This would inform the accused person that the investigation was continuing. After the investigation was complete, a trinundinum had to elapse before a final vote could be taken with respect to conviction or acquittal.[9]
[edit] Formation of the conventio before the vote
Any magistrate had the power to summon an assembly. The electors would first assemble into an unsorted meeting (the conventio). They would stay in their conventio until voting was to begin. [7] Speeches were only given during a conventio if the issue to be voted upon was a legislative or judicial matter. Usually, the presiding officer had to give an elector permission before he could make a speech.[10]
If the purpose of the ultimate vote was for an election, there would be no speeches given during the conventio. Instead, the candidates would campaign by meeting with (and often by bribing) individual electors.[11]
Before any session could begin, the auspices would have to be taken. This was to ensure that the session had the approval of the Gods. If the auspices were favorable, there would first be a prayer, and then the magistrate would proceed with the day's business.
Before a vote was held on any particular bill, the bill would have to be read to the assembly by a herald. Then, if the assembly was composed of tribes, the order of the vote would have to be determined. An urn would be brought in, and lots would be cast to determine the sequence by which the tribes would vote. After this occurred, a tribune could no longer use his veto power over the given bill.[12]
[edit] Formation of the comitia for the vote
The electors would then be told "discedite, quirites" ("depart to your separate groups"). At this point, the conventio would break apart, and the electors would form into their comitia or their concilium. If the assembly was one of tribes, the electors would assemble behind a fenced off area (saepta).[7] If the assembly was one of centuries, a licium would summon the voters into their appropriate fenced off space. Each member would vote by placing a pebble or written ballot into an appropriate jar.[13]
The baskets (cistae) that held the votes were watched by officers known as custodes. The custodes would count (diribitio) the ballots, and report the results to the presiding magistrate. The majority of votes in any tribe or century would decide how that tribe or century voted. Each tribe and each century received one vote, regardless of how many electors each tribe or century held. Once a majority of tribes or centuries voted in the same way on a given measure, the voting would end, and the matter would be decided.[14] If the process had not been completed by nightfall, the electors would be dismissed without having reached a decision. The process would have to begin again the next day.[15]
[edit] Assembly of the Centuries
During the years of the Roman Republic, citizens were organized on the basis of centuries (for military purposes) and tribes (for civil purposes). Each of the two blocks (centuries and tribes) gathered into an assembly for legislative, electoral, and judicial purposes. The Comitia Centuriata ("Century Assembly" or "Army Assembly") was the assembly of the centuries.
The president of the Comitia Centuriata was usually either a consul or praetor. Since these magistrates were elected by the Comitia Centuriata, they were considered to be the elected representatives of the Comitia Centuriata. Thus, the Comitia Centuriata was presided over by its own elected representative.
Usually, only consuls would preside over elections. This was because consuls were always elected together with (lower ranking) praetors. The only other magistrate elected by this assembly, the censor, technically outranked the consuls. Censors, however, did not hold imperium, and thus they were never allowed to preside over an assembly.
This assembly would often meet on the Campus Martius (Field of Mars). The presiding magistrate sat on a curule chair, and wore a purple-bordered toga. He would be accompanied by bodyguards called lictors. The lictors would carry axes called fasces which symbolized the coercive power of the state over its citizens. While the voters in this assembly wore togas and were unarmed, they were considered to be soldiers. Because of this, they could not meet inside the pomerium (the physical boundary of the city of Rome).[16]
[edit] Centuries
When the Comitia Centuriata was founded, it was designed to mirror the Roman army. During this time, soldiers were classified on the basis of the amount of property that they owned. Soldiers with more property outranked soldiers with less property. Therefore, this assembly always gave a higher preference to its wealthier members. The Comitia Centuriata, like the Roman army, was divided into centuries. There were 193 centuries in this assembly. Since the wealthy soldiers were divided into more centuries in the early Roman army, the wealthy soldiers were also divided into more centuries in the Comitia Centuriata. Thus, the wealthy soldiers (who were fewer in number) had a greater overall influence.
[edit] Equites
The Comitia Centuriata was divided into three different grades of soldiers. These were the equites, pedites and unarmed adjuncts.[16] The equites were the higher ranking soldiers who fought on horseback. They constituted the cavalry of the Roman army. At the time, only the wealthiest soldiers could afford a horse. Therefore, the equites represented the elite of the army, and thus the officer class. They were grouped into eighteen centuries. Six of these centuries, the sex suffragia, were composed exclusively of patricians.[16]
[edit] Pedites
The pedites constituted the foot soldiers (infantry) of the Roman army. They were grouped into 170 centuries. 85 of these centuries consisted of iuniores ("young men" or "juniors"). These soldiers were aged seventeen to forty-six, and they constituted most of the pedites. The other 85 centuries of pedites were seniores ("old men" or "seniors"). These soldiers were aged forty-six to sixty.[17]
The combined vote of the iuniores (85 centuries) equaled the combined vote of the seniores (85 centuries). The result of this arrangement was that the votes of the individual seniores carried more weight than did the votes of the numerically greater individual iuniores. The net affect was that more influence was given to the votes of the older and more experienced soldiers. As Cicero notes, this design was intentional so that the decisions of the assembly were more in line with the will of the more experienced soldiers. The weighing of the assembly towards the more experienced (seniore) soldiers was meant to ensure that the assembly made the best possible decisions.
The pedites were divided into five classes, based on property. The first class consisted of soldiers with heavy armor. The lower classes had successively less armor. The soldiers of the fifth class had nothing more than slings and stones. All of the centuries of one class had to vote before any centuries of the next lower class could vote.
The first class of pedites consisted of eighty centuries. Forty of these centuries were composed of iuniores and forty were composed of seniores. Classes two, three and four consisted of twenty centuries each. In each class, ten of these centuries were composed of iuniores and ten were composed of seniores. Class five consisted of thirty centuries. Fifteen of these centuries were composed of iuniores and fifteen were composed of seniores. [18]
[edit] Unarmed Centuries
The unarmed soldiers were divided into the final five centuries. Four of these centuries were composed of artisans and musicians (such as trumpeters and horn blowers). The fifth century, the proletarii, consisted of people with little or no property.[19] This was always the last century to vote. As such, it almost never got the chance to actually vote. This century was so poorly regarded that it was all but ignored during the census. After the reforms of Marius, however, most soldiers belonged to this century.[17]
[edit] Reorganization of the Comitia Centuriata
The Comitia Centuriata had originally been designed by the legendary king Servius Tullius. The assembly was so aristocratic that the equites and the first class of pedites controlled enough centuries for an outright majority. In 241 BC, this assembly was reorganized to make it more democratic.[20] Under the old system, there were a total of 193 centuries. Under the new system, there were a total of 373 centuries.
Under the new system, the thirty-five tribes were each divided into ten centuries.[21] Five of these centuries were of seniores, and five were of iuniores. Of each of these five centuries, one was assigned to one of the five property classes. Therefore, each tribe had two centuries (one of seniores and one of iuniores) in each of the five property classes. The property requirements for each class were probably raised. In total, this resulted in 350 centuries of pedites. Eighteen centuries of equites, and five centuries of unarmed soldiers were also included in the redesign.[20] Now, majorities usually could not be reached until the third class of pedites had begun voting. During his dictatorship, Sulla restored the old Servian organization. Soon after Sulla's death, however, the new design was reinstituted.
[edit] Voting procedure
The seven classes would vote by order of seniority (first equites, then first class pedites, then second class pedites, then third class pedites, then fourth class pedites, then fifth class pedites and then finally the unarmed centuries). The centuries in each class would vote, one at a time, until the entire class had voted. When a measure received a majority of the vote, voting would end. The centuries that had not yet voted would not be able to vote at all.
[edit] Powers of the Comitia Centuriata
The Comitia Centuriata would elect magistrates who had imperium powers (consuls and praetors). It also elected censors. After the election, the assembly would swear in the new magistrate.
Only the Comitia Centuriata could declare offensive war. Technically, no other assembly, and not even the senate, could declare offensive war.[22] The Comitia Centuriata could also pass a law that would grant imperium to consuls and praetors (lex de imperio) and censorial powers to censors (lex potestate de censoria).[22] While the Comitia Curiata could pass a similar law (lex de curiata imperio), this law had no legal consequence.
The Comitia Centuriata served as the highest court of appeal in certain judicial cases (in particular, cases involving capital punishment). In addition, it was this assembly that ratified the results of a census.[23]
[edit] Assembly of the Tribes
During the years of the Roman Republic, citizens were organized on the basis of centuries (for military purposes) and tribes (for civil purposes). Each of the two blocks (centuries and tribes) gathered into assemblies for legislative, electoral, and judicial purposes. While the centuries gathered into a single assembly (the Comitia Centuriata), the tribes gathered into two different assemblies. These two assemblies were the Comitia Tributa (the "Tribal Assembly") and the Concilium Plebis (the "Plebeian Tribal Assembly", or as it is commonly known, the "Plebeian Council"). In effect, the Comitia Tributa was a "Patricio-Plebeian Assembly of the Tribes"[24], while the Concilium Plebis was a "Plebeian Assembly of the Tribes".
The only difference between the two assemblies was that patricians could not vote in the Plebeian Tribal Assembly (i.e. the Concilium Plebis). Since patricians were excluded, the Plebeian Tribal Assembly did not constitute the entire populus Romanus ("People of Rome"). Because of this, the Plebeian Tribal Assembly could not elect magistrates. As such, the magistrates had no legal relationship with the Plebeian Tribal Assembly. To address this problem, the Plebeian Tribal Assembly elected their own officers (plebeian tribunes and plebeian aediles). These officers constituted the elected representatives of the plebeians[25] and thus only they could preside over the Plebeian Tribal Assembly.
The president of the Comitia Tributa (Patricio-Plebeian Tribal Assembly) was usually either a consul or praetor. These magistrates were elected by the People of Rome (both patricians and plebeians) while organized on the basis of the centuries. Thus, while they were not elected by the Comitia Tributa, they were still the representatives of the members of the Comitia Tributa. Thus, the Comitia Tributa was presided over by its own elected representative.
Other than the fact that the Concilium Plebis (Plebeian Tribal Assembly) excluded patricians, and thus was presided over by a plebeian officer, it was identical to the Comitia Tributa (Patricio-Plebeian Tribal Assembly).
[edit] Tribes
The two tribal assemblies were composed of thirty-five blocks known as tribes (tribus). The tribes were not ethnic or kinship groups. Rather, they were simply a generic division into which people were distributed. When the tribes were created, the divisions were geographical. They were similar to modern U.S. Congressional districts. However, since one joined the same tribe that his father belonged to (or his adopted father, in some cases), the geographical distinctions were eventually lost.[26]
Each tribe had further subdivisions. Subdivisions in the urban tribes were called vici, while subdivisions in the rural tribes were called pagi. Other subdivisions within tribes were possible. One example would be a collegia (college). The collegia were professional subdivisions. The tribe, however, was always the fundamental organizing unit. Each tribe had its own officers, such as curatores and divisores (treasurers). They also had registers, who would conduct a tribal census.[27] In the later republic, some tribal officers were assigned the role of distributing bribes during elections.
The presiding officer would ensure that all tribes had at least five members voting. If any tribe did not, that officer could choose people from other tribes to vote in the vacant tribe.[28]
It was possible to crudely gerrymander tribes. While land could never be taken away from a tribe, the censors had the power to allocate new lands into existing tribes. This was done during the census. Thus, censors had the power to apportion tribes in a manner that might be advantageous to them or to their partisans.[29]
[edit] Voting procedure
During the early and middle republic, the two tribal assemblies would meet at various locations in the Roman Forum. They often met at the rostra, the comitium, or the Temple of Castor and Pollux. Sometimes they would meet at the area Capitolina by the temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus. By the late republic, they would often meet on the Campus Martius (Field of Mars), because the size of the field allowed votes to occur quicker.[30]
In addition to the presiding magistrate, several additional magistrates would be present during meetings. They served as adjuncts to the presiding magistrate. They were available to help resolve procedural disputes, and to provide a mechanism through which electors could appeal any action taken by the presiding magistrate.[31] There would also be an augur either in attendance or on-call. Augurs were priests who studied omens (known as "taking the auspices"), and attempted to determine the will of the Gods from those omens. The need to interpret omens occurred regularly when the assemblies met. This was because the Romans believed that the Gods would let their approval or disapproval with a proposed law be known.[31] A preliminary auspices would be conducted by the presiding magistrate the night before any meeting. The magistrate would go to the site of a meeting between midnight and dawn, and attempt to determine if the meeting had the approval of the Gods.[32]
The order that the thirty-five tribes would vote in was selected randomly by lot. The order was not chosen at once. Instead, after each tribe had voted, a lot was used to determine which tribe would vote next. [33] The first tribe selected was called the principium. The early voting tribes often decided the matter. It was believed that the order of the lot was chosen by the Gods. Thus, it was believed that the position held by the early voting tribes was the position held by the Gods.[34] As can (usually) be seen amongst early voting states in U.S. Presidential primaries, the early results could create a bandwagon effect.
Once a majority of tribes had voted the same way, voting would end.
[edit] Concilium Plebis (Plebeian Tribal Assembly)
The Concilium Plebis was originally organized on the basis of the curiae. It was, in effect, a Plebeian Curiate Assembly. Around the year 471 BC,[25] it was reorganized on the basis of the tribes. Thus, it became the Plebeian Tribal Assembly.
Throughout the life of the republic, almost all Romans were plebeians. Therefore, the Concilium Plebis was never much smaller than was the Comitia Tributa. This assembly elected two plebeian officers, the tribunes and the aediles. These two officers were the elected representatives of the plebeians.[25] Thus, they acted as the presiding officers of this assembly.
Following the passage of the Lex Hortensia in 287 BC, laws passed by the Concilium Plebis (plebiscita) had the full force of law. Before this point, the plebiscita only applied to the class that enacted them (plebeians).[35] After this point, however, plebiscita applied to all of the People of Rome.
After the passage of the Lex Hortensia, most legislation that was passed came from the Concilium Plebis. Since the Concilium Plebis was composed only of plebeians, it was more populist than the Comitia Tributa. Therefore, it was usually the engine behind the more controversial reforms (such as those of the tribunes Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus).
[edit] Comitia Tributa (Patricio-Plebeian Tribal Assembly)
The Comitia Tributa consisted of both patricians and plebeians. A curule magistrate, usually a consul (or sometimes a praetor), would preside over this assembly. As such, the presiding magistrate would usually sit on a curule chair.
The Comitia Tributa elected quaestors, curule aediles, and military tribunes.[32]. While the Comitia Tributa had the power to enact new laws, it usually did not enact such laws. Ordinarily, the Concilium Plebis would enact news laws. The Comitia Tributa also had the power to try judicial cases. However, after the reforms of Lucius Cornelius Sulla, the ability to try cases was reassigned to quaestiones perpetuae ("permanent jury courts"). Each court would have a specific jurisdiction.
[edit] Assembly of the Curiae
During the first decades of the republic, the People of Rome were organized into thirty curiae.[36][23] The curiae were organized on the basis of the clans (or ethnic kinships).[37] During this time, neither centuries nor tribes were used for political purposes. The curiae would assemble for legislative, electoral and judicial purposes.
During these first decades, there were two assemblies of the curiae. For both of these assemblies, the curiae (rather than the century or the tribe) was the basis for organization. One of these assemblies, the "Plebeian Curiate Assembly", was composed only of plebeians. This was the original Concilium Plebis. The other of these two assemblies, the "Patricio-Plebeian Curiate Assembly" ("Comitia Curiata"), was composed of both patricians and plebeians.
[edit] Concilium Plebis (Plebeian Curiate Assembly)
The Plebeian Curiate Assembly was the original Concilium Plebis.[38] The only difference between the Plebeian Curiate Assembly and the Plebeian Tribal Assembly was that the Plebeian Curiate Assembly was composed of plebeians organized by curiae rather than by tribe.
Before the first plebeian secession (in 494 BC), the plebeians probably did gather into an assembly on the basis of the curiae. However, this assembly probably had no political role until the offices of plebeian tribune and plebeian aedile were created in 494 BC. As a result of the plebeian secession, the patrician aristocracy formally recognized the political power of the plebeian tribune. When they legitimized the power of the plebeian tribune, they legitimized the power of the assembly (the Plebeian Curiate Assembly) that the plebeian tribune presided over.
After 494 BC, the Plebeian Curiate Assembly would always be presided over by a plebeian tribune. This assembly would elect the plebeian tribunes and the plebeian aediles.[25] It would also pass legislation (plebiscita) that would only apply to the plebeians.
Around the year 471 BC,[25] the Plebeian Curiate Assembly began to use tribes, rather than curiae, as its basis for organization. When they were organized by curiae (and thus by clan), the plebeians were dependent on their patrician patrons. When they transitioned to a tribal organization (an organization based on geography rather than clan), the plebeians were no longer dependent on those patricians.[39] As such, the Plebeian Curiate Assembly became the Plebeian Tribal Assembly (what we more commonly know as the Concilium Plebis).[38]
[edit] Comitia Curiata (Patricio-Plebeian Curiate Assembly)
During the first decades of the republic, consuls (the only magistrates with imperium at the time) would preside over the Patricio-Plebeian Curiate Assembly.[40] This assembly had the full range of legislative, electoral, and judicial powers. Its laws (lex) applied to all of the People of Rome (patricians and plebeians). While plebeians could participate in this assembly, they could not vote.
Shortly after the founding of the republic, the powers of the Patricio-Plebeian Curiate Assembly were transferred to the Comitia Centuriata and the Comitia Tributa (specifically, the Century Assembly and the Patricio-Plebeian Tribal Assembly).[36] The Patricio-Plebeian Curiate Assembly then fell into disuse, and became known as the "Comitia Curiata" of the later republic.
The now-obsolete Comitia Curiata was presided over by a curule magistrate (usually either a consul or praetor). Any law passed by the Comitia Curiata could be vetoed by a tribune. In addition, the activity of the assembly could be interfered with by the auspices.[23] Acts that the Comitia Curiata voted on were mostly symbolic and usually in the affirmative.[23] At one point, possibly as early as 218 BC, the Comitia Curiata's thirty curiae were abolished, and replaced with thirty lictors.[23]
After it had fallen into disuse, the primary legislative role of the Comitia Curiata was to pass the annual lex curiata de imperio. Theoretically, this was necessary to ratify the election of consuls and praetors by granting them imperium powers. In practice, however, this may have been a ceremonial (and unnecessary) task. It may have functioned as nothing more than a reminder of Rome's regal heritage.[23]
The curiae were organized on the basis of clan (or ethnic kinship).[37] Therefore, long after the Comitia Curiata had lost most of its political powers, it retained jurisdiction over clan matters.[40] Under the presidency of the Pontifex Maximus[36], it would witness wills and ratify adoptions (adrogatio)[36]. It would also inaugurate certain priests, and transfer citizens from patrician class to plebeian class. In 59 BC, it transferred the patrician Publius Clodius Pulcher to the plebeian class so that he could run for the tribunate. In 44 BC, it ratified the will of Julius Caesar, and with it Caesar's adoption of his nephew Gaius Octavian (the future emperor Augustus) as his son and heir.[23]
[edit] Comitia Calata
The Comitia Calata ("Calate Assembly") was technically an assembly of the curiae. However, it served no political or legal purpose. It was probably older than either of the primary assemblies of the curiae. Almost nothing is known about this assembly. Since it was not a political assembly, it was presided over by the Pontifex Maximus rather than a magistrate. It performed several religious duties. It inaugurated priests, and selected Vestal Virgins.[41]
[edit] See also
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[edit] References
- Abbott, Frank Frost (1901). A History and Description of Roman Political Institutions. Elibron Classics (ISBN 0-543-92749-0).
- Byrd, Robert (1995). The Senate of the Roman Republic. U.S. Government Printing Office, Senate Document 103-23.
- Cicero, Marcus Tullius (1841). The Political Works of Marcus Tullius Cicero: Comprising his Treatise on the Commonwealth; and his Treatise on the Laws. Translated from the original, with Dissertations and Notes in Two Volumes. By Francis Barham, Esq. London: Edmund Spettigue. Vol. 1.
- Lintott, Andrew (1999). The Constitution of the Roman Republic. Oxford University Press (ISBN 0-19-926108-3).
- Polybius (1823). The General History of Polybius: Translated from the Greek. By Mr. Hampton. Oxford: Printed by W. Baxter. Fifth Edition, Vol 2.
- Taylor, Lily Ross (1966). Roman Voting Assemblies: From the Hannibalic War to the Dictatorship of Caesar. The University of Michigan Press (ISBN 0-472-08125-X).
[edit] Notes
- ^ Lintott, 40
- ^ Byrd, 161
- ^ a b Lintott, 42
- ^ a b Abbott, 251
- ^ Lintott, 43
- ^ Abbott, 252
- ^ a b c Taylor, 2
- ^ a b c Lintott, 44
- ^ Lintott, 44-45
- ^ Lintott, 45
- ^ Taylor, 16
- ^ Lintott, 46
- ^ Lintott, 46-47
- ^ Taylor, 40
- ^ Lintott, 48
- ^ a b c Taylor, 85
- ^ a b Taylor, 86
- ^ Taylor, 87
- ^ Abbott, 21
- ^ a b Abbott, 75
- ^ Abbott, 74
- ^ a b Abbott, 257
- ^ a b c d e f g Taylor, 3, 4
- ^ Abbott, 259
- ^ a b c d e Abbott, 196
- ^ Lintott, 51
- ^ Lintott, 52
- ^ Taylor, 66
- ^ Taylor, 66
- ^ Lintott, 55
- ^ a b Taylor, 63
- ^ a b Taylor, 7
- ^ Taylor, 77
- ^ Taylor, 76
- ^ Byrd, 31
- ^ a b c d Byrd, 33
- ^ a b Abbott, 250
- ^ a b Abbott, 261
- ^ Abbott, 260
- ^ a b Abbott, 253
- ^ Lintott, 49
[edit] Further reading
- Ihne, Wilhelm. Researches Into the History of the Roman Constitution. William Pickering. 1853.
- Johnston, Harold Whetstone. Orations and Letters of Cicero: With Historical Introduction, An Outline of the Roman Constitution, Notes, Vocabulary and Index. Scott, Foresman and Company. 1891.
- Mommsen, Theodor. Roman Constitutional Law. 1871-1888
- Tighe, Ambrose. The Development of the Roman Constitution. D. Apple & Co. 1886.
- Von Fritz, Kurt. The Theory of the Mixed Constitution in Antiquity. Columbia University Press, New York. 1975.
- The Histories by Polybius
- Cambridge Ancient History, Volumes 9–13.
- A. Cameron, The Later Roman Empire, (Fontana Press, 1993).
- M. Crawford, The Roman Republic, (Fontana Press, 1978).
- E. S. Gruen, "The Last Generation of the Roman Republic" (U California Press, 1974)
- F. Millar, The Emperor in the Roman World, (Duckworth, 1977, 1992).
- A. Lintott, "The Constitution of the Roman Republic" (Oxford University Press, 1999)
[edit] Primary sources
- Cicero's De Re Publica, Book Two
- Rome at the End of the Punic Wars: An Analysis of the Roman Government; by Polybius
[edit] Secondary source material
- Considerations on the Causes of the Greatness of the Romans and their Decline, by Montesquieu
- The Roman Constitution to the Time of Cicero
- What a Terrorist Incident in Ancient Rome Can Teach Us
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