Kreutz Sungrazers
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The Kreutz Sungrazers (pronounced /ˈkrɔɪts/) are sungrazing comets of a particular family. They are believed to be fragments of one large comet that broke up several centuries ago and are named for the astronomer Heinrich Kreutz, who first demonstrated that they were related.
Several members of the Kreutz family have become Great Comets, occasionally visible near the Sun in the daytime sky. The most recent of these was Comet Ikeya-Seki in 1965, which may have been one of the brightest comets in the last millennium.
Many hundreds of smaller members of the family, some only a few metres across, have been discovered since the launch of the SOHO satellite in 1995. None have survived their perihelion passage. Amateur astronomers have been successful at discovering Kreutz comets in the data available in real time via the Internet.
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[edit] Discovery and historical observations
The first comet whose orbit had been found to take it extremely close to the Sun was the Great Comet of 1680. This comet was found to have passed just 200,000 km (0.0013 AU) above the sun's surface, equivalent to about half the distance between the Earth and the Moon. It thus became the first known sungrazing comet. Its perihelion distance was just 1.3 solar radii. (That is, it missed the sun by just 0.3 solar radii.) To an observer on the comet, the Sun would subtend an angle of over 80° in the sky; it would appear 27,000 times larger and brighter than when viewed from Earth, and would deliver 37 megawatts of heat to each square meter of the comet's surface.
Astronomers at the time, including Edmond Halley, speculated that this comet was a return of a bright comet seen close to the Sun in the sky in 1106. 163 years later, the Great Comet of 1843 appeared and also passed extremely close to the Sun. Despite orbital calculations showing that it had a period of several centuries, some astronomers wondered if it was a return of the 1680 comet. A bright comet seen in 1880 was found to be travelling on an almost identical orbit to that of 1843, as was the subsequent Great Comet of 1882. Some astronomers suggested that perhaps they were all one comet, whose orbital period was somehow being drastically shortened at each perihelion passage, perhaps by retardation by some dense material surrounding the Sun.
An alternative suggestion was that the comets were all fragments of an earlier sun-grazing comet. This idea was first proposed in 1880, and its plausibility was amply demonstrated when the Great Comet of 1882 broke up into several fragments after its perihelion passage. In 1888, Heinrich Kreutz published a paper showing that the comets of 1843, 1880 and 1882 were probably fragments of a giant comet that had broken up several revolutions before. The comet of 1680 proved to be unrelated to this family of comets.
After another Kreutz Sungrazer was seen in 1887, the next one did not appear until 1945. Two further sungrazers appeared in the 1960s, Comet Pereyra in 1963 and Comet Ikeya-Seki, which became extremely bright in 1965, and broke into three pieces after its perihelion. The appearance of two Kreutz Sungrazers in quick succession inspired further study of the dynamics of the group.
[edit] Notable members
The brightest members of the Kreutz Sungrazers have been spectacular objects, easily visible in the daytime sky. The three most impressive have been the Great Comet of 1843, the Great Comet of 1882 and Comet Ikeya-Seki. Another notable Kreutz Sungrazer was the Eclipse Comet of 1882.
[edit] The Great Comet of 1843
The Great Comet of 1843 was first noticed in early February of that year, just over three weeks before its perihelion passage. By February 27 it was easily visible in the daytime sky, and observers described seeing a tail 2–3° long stretching away from the sun before being lost in the glare of the sky. After its perihelion passage, it reappeared in the morning sky, and developed an extremely long tail. Stretching at least 50° across the sky, the tail was calculated to be more than 300 million miles long. This held the record for the longest measured cometary tail until 2000, when Comet Hyakutake's tail was found to stretch to some 570 million miles in length. (The Earth-Sun distance - 1 AU - is only 93 million miles.)
The comet was very prominent throughout early March, before fading away to almost below naked eye visibility by the beginning of April. It was last detected on April 20. This comet apparently made a substantial impression on the public, inspiring in some a fear that judgement day was imminent.
[edit] The Eclipse Comet of 1882
A party of observers gathered in Egypt to watch a solar eclipse in 1882 were greatly surprised when they observed a bright streak near to the Sun once totality began. By a remarkable coincidence, the eclipse had coincided with the perihelion passage of a Kreutz comet. The comet would otherwise have gone unnoticed — its sighting during the eclipse was the only observation of it. Photographs of the eclipse revealed that the comet had moved noticeably during the 1m50s eclipse, as would be expected for a comet racing past the Sun at almost 500 km/s. The comet is sometimes referred to as Tewfik, after Tewfik Pasha, the Khedive of Egypt at the time.
[edit] The Great Comet of 1882
The Great Comet of 1882 was discovered independently by many observers, as it was already easily visible to the naked eye when it appeared in early September 1882, just a few days before perihelion. It grew rapidly brighter and was eventually so bright it was visible in the daytime for two days (16–17 September), even being seen through light cloud.
After its perihelion passage, the comet remained bright for several weeks. During October, its nucleus was seen to fragment into first two and then four pieces. Some observers also reported seeing diffuse patches of light several degrees away from the nucleus. The rate of separation of the fragments of the nucleus was such that they will return about a century apart, between 670 and 960 years after the break-up.
[edit] Comet Ikeya-Seki
Comet Ikeya-Seki is the most recent very bright Kreutz sungrazer. It was discovered independently by two Japanese amateur astronomers on September 18, 1965, within 15 minutes of each other, and quickly recognised as a Kreutz Sungrazer. It brightened rapidly over the following four weeks as it approached the sun, and reached apparent magnitude 2 by October 15. Its perihelion passage occurred on October 21, and observers across the world easily saw it in the daytime sky. Estimates of its magnitude were as bright as −17, far brighter than the full Moon and brighter than any other comet seen since 1106.
Japanese astronomers using a coronagraph saw the comet break into three pieces 30 minutes before perihelion. When the comet reappeared in the morning sky in early November, two of these nuclei were definitely detected with the third suspected. The comet developed a very prominent tail, about 25° in length, before fading throughout November. It was last detected in January 1966.
[edit] Dynamical history and evolution
A study by Brian Marsden in 1967 was the first attempt to trace back the orbital history of the group to identify the progenitor comet. All known members of the group up until 1965 had almost identical orbital inclinations at about 144°, as well as very similar values for the longitude of perihelion at 280–282°, with a couple of outlying points probably due to uncertain orbital calculations. A greater range of values existed for the argument of perihelion and longitude of the ascending node.
Marsden found that the Kreutz Sungrazers could be split into two groups, with slightly different orbital elements, implying that the family resulted from fragmentations at more than one perihelion. Tracing back the orbits of Ikeya-Seki and the Great Comet of 1882, Marsden found that at their previous perihelion passage, the difference between their orbital elements was of the same order of magnitude as the difference between the elements of the fragments of Ikeya-Seki after it broke up. This meant it was realistic to presume that they were two parts of the same comet which had broken up one orbit ago. By far the best candidate for the progenitor comet was that seen in 1106: Ikeya-Seki's derived orbital period gave a previous perihelion almost exactly at the right time, and while the Great Comet of 1882's derived orbit implied a previous perihelion a few decades later, it would only require a small error in the orbital elements to bring it into agreement.
The Sungrazers of 1689, 1702 and 1945 also seem to be closely related to those of 1882 and 1965, although their orbits are not well enough determined to establish whether they broke off from the parent comet in 1106, or the previous perihelion passage before that, some time in the 4th century AD. This subgroup is known as Subgroup I.
The Sungrazers of 1843 and 1963 also seem to be closely related, although when their orbits are traced back to one previous perihelion, the differences between the orbital elements are still rather large, probably implying that they broke apart from each other one revolution before that. They do not seem to be related to the comet of 1106, but rather a comet that returned about 50 years before that. The Sungrazers of 1668, 1695, 1880 and 1963 are also members of this subgroup, called Subgroup II, probably resulting from fragmentations at the previous perihelion or the one before that. Comet White-Ortiz-Bolelli, which was seen in 1970, is more closely related to this group than Subgroup I, but appears to have broken off during the previous orbit to the other fragments.
The distinction between the two sub-groups is thought to imply that they result from two separate parent comets, which themselves were once part of a 'grandparent' comet which fragmented several orbits previously. One possible candidate for the grandparent is a comet observed by Aristotle and Ephorus in 371 BC. Ephorus claimed to have seen this comet break into two. The original comet must certainly have been very large indeed, perhaps as large as 100 km across (for comparison, the nucleus of Comet Hale-Bopp was about 40 km across).
Although its orbit is rather different from those of the main two groups, it is possible that the comet of 1680 is also related to the Kreutz Sungrazers via a fragmentation many orbits ago.
The Kreutz Sungrazers are probably not a unique phenomenon. Studies have shown that for comets with high orbital inclinations and perihelion distances of less than about 2 AU, the cumulative effect of gravitational perturbations tends to result in sungrazing orbits. One study has estimated that Comet Hale-Bopp has about a 15% chance of eventually becoming a sun-grazing comet.
[edit] Current observations
Until recently, it would have been possible for even a very bright member of the Kreutz Sungrazers to pass through the inner solar system unnoticed, if its perihelion occurred between about May and August. At this time of year, as seen from Earth, the comet would approach and recede almost directly behind the sun, and could only become visible extremely close to the sun if it became very bright. Only a remarkable coincidence between the perihelion passage of the Eclipse Comet of 1882 and a total solar eclipse allowed its discovery.
However, during the 1980s, two Sun-observing satellites serendipitously discovered several new members of the Kreutz family, and since the launch of the SOHO Sun-observing satellite in 1995, it has been possible to observe comets very close to the sun at any time of year. The satellite provides a constant view of the immediate solar vicinity, and SOHO has now discovered hundreds of new sungrazing comets, some just a few metres across. About 84% of the sungrazers found by SOHO are members of the Kreutz group, with the other being referred to as 'non-Kreutz' or 'sporadic' sungrazers. None of the sungrazers seen by SOHO has survived its perihelion passage; some may have plunged into the Sun itself, but most are likely to have simply evaporated away completely.
More than 75% of the SOHO sungrazers have been discovered by amateur astronomers analysing SOHO's observations via the Internet. Some amateurs have managed remarkable numbers of discoveries, with Rainer Kracht of Germany having chalked up 176 identifications, and Michael Oates of the United Kingdom making 144 discoveries. [1] As of August 10, 2006, 1000 Kreutz Sungrazers have been indentified.
SOHO observations have shown that Sungrazers frequently arrive in pairs separated by a few hours. These pairs are too frequent to occur by chance, and cannot be due to break-ups on the previous orbit, because the fragments would have separated by a much greater distance. Instead, it is thought that the pairs result from fragmentations far away from the perihelion. Many comets have been observed to fragment far from perihelion, and it seems that in the case of the Kreutz Sungrazers, an initial fragmentation near perihelion can be followed by an ongoing 'cascade' of break-ups throughout the rest of the orbit.
The number of Subgroup I Kreutz comets discovered is about four times the number of Subgroup II members. This suggests that the 'grandparent' comet split into parent comets of unequal size.
[edit] Future of the Kreutz Sungrazers
Dynamically, the Kreutz sungrazers might continue to be recognised as a distinct family for many thousands of years yet. Eventually their orbits will disperse due to gravitational perturbations, although depending on the rate of fragmentation of the constituent parts, the group might be completely destroyed before it is gravitationally dispersed. The continuing discovery of large numbers of the smaller members of the family by SOHO will undoubtedly lead to a greater understanding of how comets break up to form families.
The last Kreutz Sungrazer to become bright was Comet White-Ortiz-Bolelli in 1970. It is not possible to estimate the chances of another very bright Kreutz comet arriving in the near future, but given that at least 10 have reached naked eye visibility over the last 200 years, another great comet from the Kreutz family seems almost certain to arrive at some point.
[edit] References
- Bailey M.E., Emel'Yanenko V.V., Hahn G., Harris N.W., Hughes K.A., Muinonen K. (1996), Orbital evolution of Comet 1995 O1 Hale-Bopp, Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, Volume 281, p. 916–924.
- Bailey M.E., Chambers J.E., Hahn G. (1992), Origin of sungrazers - A frequent cometary end-state, Astronomy and Astrophysics, v. 257, p. 315–322.
- Kreutz, H.C.F. (1888), Untersuchungen über das cometensystem 1843 I, 1880 I und 1882 II, Kiel, Druck von C. Schaidt, C. F. Mohr nachfl., 1888
- Marsden B.G. (1967), The sungrazing comet group, Astronomical Journal, v. 72, p. 1170
- Marsden B.G. (1989), The sungrazing comet group. II, Astronomical Journal, v. 98, p. 2306
- Marsden B.G. (1989), The Sungrazing Comets Revisited, Asteroids, comets, meteors III, Proceedings of meeting (AMC 89), Uppsala: Universitet, 1990, eds C.I. Lagerkvist, H. Rickman, B.A. Lindblad., p.393
- Sekanina, Zdenek (2001), Kreutz sungrazers: the ultimate case of cometary fragmentation and disintegration?, Publications of the Astronomical Institute of the Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, No. 89, p. 78–93
- Sekanina, Zdenek & Chodas, Paul W. (July 2007), “Fragmentation Hierarchy of Bright Sungrazing Comets and the Birth and Orbital Evolution of the Kreutz System. II. The Case for Cascading Fragmentation”, The Astrophysical Journal 663 (1): 657-676, <http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007ApJ...663..657S>
