Korean Buddhist sculpture

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Pensive Bodhisattva Maitreya, National Treasure no. 83. National Museum of Korea.

Korean Buddhist sculpture is one of the major areas of Korean art. Buddhism, a religion originating in what is now India, was transmitted to Korea via China in the late fourth century.^[1] The religion inspired the production of temple architecture and devotional art. The Buddhist sculpture of Korea is indebted to prototypes developed in India, Central Asia, and China. However, from these influences, a distinctive Korean style formed.^[2]^[3] Korean Buddhas typically exhibit Korean facial characteristics, were made with different casting and carving techniques, and employed only some of the motifs that were developed earlier in Buddhist art. ^[4] Additionally, Korean artisans fused together different styles from different regions with their own tastes to form a native art tradition.^[5] These Korean stylistic developments were greatly influential in the Asuka, Hakuho, and Tenpyo periods of Japanese Buddhist sculpture when Korea transmitted Buddhism to Japan in the sixth century.^[6]^[7]^[8] Some of the finest and most technically accomplished Buddhist sculpture in East Asia were produced in Korea.^[9] Buddhist sculpture remains an important form of art in Korea today.

[edit] Background

Each individual Buddhist sculpture has various characteristics and attributes which art historians use as clues to determine when and where it was made. Sometimes a statue will have an inscription or contain a document which attests to when, where, and who made it. Sometimes, there are reliable archaeological records which state where a statue was excavated. However, when neither of these sources of information are available, scholars can still glean important information on an individual statue by its style, the particular iconography employed by the artist, and physical characteristics, such as the material used to make the statue, the percentage of metals used in an alloy, casting and carving techniques, and various other contextual clues.

Many Buddhist sculptures in Korea have not survived the vagaries of time and invasion. Those that have are typically small bronze votive images for private worship or sculpture carved in granite, the most abundant material available in Korea. Monumental sculpture for state-sponsored monasteries and devotional objects for royalty, for the most part, have not survived. Although wood and lacquer images were also created in Korea, the earliest wood sculpture that is still extant, not counting the Koryu-ji Maitreya, is a Goryeo true-image of a Buddhist monk from the early 10th century and classified as Treasure no. 999. Gilt-bronze was a common material used for sculpture. However, because bronze was an expensive metal artisans begin using other materials. In Unified Silla, casters began using iron. Of further note is the abundance of granite on the Korean peninsula with many images carved from the living rock.

[edit] Three Kingdoms period (traditional 57 BCE–668)

[edit] Fourth and fifth centuries

According to the Samguk sagi and Samguk yusa, the two oldest extant histories of Korea, Buddhism was officially introduced to Korea during the fourth century. In addition, the Haedong goseungjeon states that monks from China were already in Korea prior to its official reception. Sundo, a monk from Former Qin, a northern Chinese state, was received by Goguryeo in 372 and a Serindian monk, Malananda, from southern China's Eastern Jin Dynasty was received by Paekche in 384.^[10] Archaeological discoveries have corroborated these assertions of the early introduction of Buddhism into Korea with the discovery of Goguryeo tomb murals with Buddhist motifs and the excavation of lotus shaped roof tiles dated to the fourth century.^[11]^[12] The rulers of both Korean kingdoms welcomed the foreign monks and immediately ordered monasteries be built for their use. The construction of Buddhist images soon followed.

Detail of Buddha, Goguryeo Korea, late 5th century. Mural painting, eastern ceiling of main burial chamber, Jangcheon-ri Tomb No.1, Jian, Jilin province, China.

Detail of Bodhisattvas, Goguryeo Korea, late 5th century. Mural painting, eastern ceiling of main burial chamber, Jangcheon-ri Tomb No.1, Jian, Jilin province, China.

The Ttukseom (Ttuksôm) Buddha (image), named for the area of Seoul in which it was discovered, is the earliest statue of Buddha in Korea.^[13] Scholars date it to the late fourth or early fifth century, around 400.^[14] The five centimeter tall gilt-bronze statuette follows certain stylistic conventions originating in Ghandara (present-day Pakistan), and which were later adopted by China.^[15] These include the rectangular platform upon which the Buddha sits which depicts two lions, a common symbol of Buddha. Additionally, it displays the dhyana mudra, a gesture of meditation commonly found in early seated Buddhas of China and Korea. The stylistic similarities of this Buddha to those found in China lead most scholars to conclude that the image is an import.^[16] Two Chinese examples, one at the Asian Art Museum (image) and the other, shown below, at the National Palace Museum in Taipei (image) illustrate the similarities. However, the possibility remains that the image is a Korean copy of a Chinese prototype.^[17]

The discovery of the Ttukseom Buddha near a known Baekje settlement, fortress, and first capital suggests the figure may be an example of Baekje sculpture. A very similar meditating Buddha discovered in the later Baekje capital of Sabi (now known as Buyeo) supports this theory.^[18] Other scholars suggest that the figure may be a Goguryeo piece because of the close stylistic similarities the figure has with the northern dynastic art, a typical feature of early Goguryeo sculpture.^[19]

A Chinese prototype of the Ttukseom Buddha at the National Palace Museum in Taipei, Taiwan.

The only other known examples of Korean Buddhist sculpture from the fourth or fifth century are some terra cotta fragments from Goguryeo.

[edit] Sixth century

[edit] Goguryeo

One of the oldest surviving Korean Buddhas discovered so far is the Yŏn'ga (Revised Romanization: Yeon-ga) Buddha. The Buddha, the only one of a thousand commissioned that has survived, gets its name from the inscription on its back that mentions a previously unknown Goguryeo reign period. While it was discovered in Uiryong in Gyeongsangnam-do, former Silla territory, the inscription clearly states the statue was cast in Nangnang (present-day Pyongyang), Goguryeo. The statue is valuable because it has a clear date of manufacture, 539, and its provenance. Additionally, it proves that images from Goguryeo were sent to Silla.

The rather crude carvings on the mandorla of the Buddha exhibits motion and dynamism typical of Goguryeo art. The figure also exhibits the abahya (no fear) mudra in its upraised proper right hand while the proper left hand displays the verada (wish-granting) mudra. Both mudras are typical of early Korean standing Buddhist sculpture and the folding of the last two fingers of the proper left hand to the palm is a uniquely Korean style. The Yon'ga Buddha also displays other attributes common to early Goguryeo Buddhas including the lean face, prominent protuberances on the head (Sanskrit: ushnisa), large hands disproportionate to the body, an emphasis on the front of the figures, fishtail flaring of the robes on the sides, and the flame imagery on the halo.^[20]^[21]

The prototype of this Buddha derives from the non-Chinese Tuoba clan of the Xianbei people who established the Northern Wei dynasty in northern geographic China. An example of a Northern Wei prototype, dated to 524, can be found at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, shown below. An Eastern Wei Buddha (image), dated to 536, is at the University of Pennsylvania Museum. Both images show the strong influence of the Northern Wei and its derivative dynasties.

Yŏn'ga Buddha, Goguryeo, 539. Gilt bronze, h. 16.3 cm. National Museum of Korea, National Treasure no. 119.

Back view of the Yŏn'ga Buddha.

Altarpiece dedicated to Buddha Maitreya, Northern Wei dynasty (386–534), dated 524 Zhengding xian, Hebei province, China Gilt bronze; H. 30 1/4 in. (76.9 cm); W. 16 in. (40.6 cm); D. 9 3/4 in. (24.8 cm). Metropolitan Museum of Art.

The stiffness of early Goguryeo sculpture is sometimes attributed to the harsh climate of the kingdom which was situated in northern Korea and Manchuria.^[22] The replacement of the typically elongated and lean face of Goguryeo sculpture, exemplified by the Yŏn'ga Buddha and the Standing Bodhisattva with triple head ornament shown below, with images with plump faces and gently depicted robes, exemplified by the Wono-ri Bodhisattva, may reflect the conquering of the Han River valley from Baekje in 475 ^[23] or the introduction of gentler climes. These changes probably reflect, directly or indirectly, the influence of Baekje style^[24] or from Goguryeo diplomatic contacts with the southern Chinese dynasties.

The provenance of the standing Bodhisattva with triple head ornament is unknown. Based on common stylistic similarities, such as the fishtail draperies, the large hands, and the two incised lines on the chest indicating an undergarment (a southern Chinese convention) with the Yon'ga Buddha, most scholars believe that it is originally from Goguryeo. The Bodhisattva is only modeled in the front, another Northern Wei characteristic, and the unfinished back has several pegs. These pegs have led some scholars to believe that this Bodhisattva was once a central figure in a single-mandorla triad.

Standing Bodhisattva with triple head ornament, probably Goguryeo, mid-6th c. Gilt bronze, h. 15 cm. National Museum of Korea, Treasure No. 333.

Wono-ri Bodhisattva, Goguryeo, first half of the 6th c. Ceramic, h. 17 cm. National Museum of Korea.

A seated Buddha at the National Museum of Korea is starkly different from its chronological counterpart, the Kunsu-ri seated Buddha from Baekje. The Buddha displays typical Goguryeo traits, such as the rounded usnisa and head and hands disproportion ally large to the body.^[25] The image displays the dhyana mudra. The depiction of the folds of the robe over a now lost rectangular throne is exuberant with no sense of following a set scheme.^[26]

[edit] Baekje

Standing Buddha, Baekje, mid-6th c. Gilt bronze, h. 9.4 cm. Buyeo National Museum.

Baekje sculpture of the 6th century reflect the influence of the native and foreign regimes ruling China during the period of Northern and Southern Dynasties. While Korean and Chinese records show direct diplomatic contacts between Baekje and the Northern Wei dynasty occurred during this time period, they pale in comparison to the numerous diplomatic missions between Baekje and the southern dynasties of China. Further complicating the understanding of the source of inspiration for Baekje Buddhist sculpture is the fact that the southern dynasties were influential in the development of northern sculpture and the fact that few images from the southern regimes have survived.

One of the most frequent types of images that were made throughout the century are single-mandorla triads. The similarities between the triads found in the former Baekje and Goguryeo kingdoms suggests that the introduction of such images came from both Goguryeo itself as well as China. An example of the influence of the Northern Wei style is the statue now at the National Museum of Korea. This image, probably once a part of a single-mandorla triad, has robes draped in the same style as the Yong'a Buddha. However, the Baekje-specific modifications, such as the gentleness of the face, Omega-like folds in the under robe, and a sense of stability exhibited in the expansiveness of the robes as they flare out clearly differentiate this image from those from Goguryeo.

Standing Buddha Triad, Three Kingdoms period, probably Baekje, late 6th c. Gilt bronze, h. 10cm. Gyeongju National Museum.

Another example of sixth century sculpture is a triad now at the Gyeongju National Museum. Like contemporaneous examples from Goguryeo, the statue exhibits traits typical of the Northern Wei style, especially in the depiction of the robes. Some similarities with Goguryeo-specific traits include the fairly crude depiction of the flames in the mandorla, simplification being a common trait in extant early sculpture. The roundness of the face, the smile of the central Buddha as well as the harmonious proportions, static nature of the image, and a sense of warmth and humanity are features typically associated with the Southern Dynasties of China, and frequently occur in features of Baekje sculpture as well.^[27] The warm climate and fertile environment the kingdom was situated along with native sensibilities are credited as reasons for the Baekje style.^[28]

Seated Buddha, Baekje Korea, second half of 6th c. Soapstone, h. 13.5 cm. Buyeo National Museum. Treasure No. 329.

A Baekje soapstone seated Buddha discovered at the Kunsu-ri temple site in Buyeo displays the soft roundness and static nature of the early Baekje style during the second half of the sixth century.^[29] Unlike the Ttukseom seated Buddha, the Kunsu-ri Buddha features the robes of the Buddha draped over the rectangular platform and does away with the lions common in earlier images. The symmetrically stylized drapery folds is followed in later Japanese images, such as the Shakyamuni Triad in Hōryū-ji. Like the Ttukseom Buddha, the Kunsu-ri Buddha follows early Chinese and Korean conventions displaying the dhyana mudra. This particular mudra is notably absent in subsequent Japanese Buddhist sculpture which perhaps indicates that the iconography was out of style in Korea by the time Buddhist sculpture began arriving in Japan in the mid-sixth century.^[30]^[31] The seated Buddhas of the late sixth century begin to do away with the meditation gesture in favor of the wish-granting gesture and protection gesture. An example of this kind of seated Buddha is the Paekche triad now at the Tokyo National Museum and is followed by subsequent Japanese images, such as the aforementioned Shakyamuni Triad (image) in Hōryū-ji.

A standing Bodhisattva (image) now at the Buyeo National Museum was excavated from Kunsu-ri (Gunsu-ri) along with the seated Buddha. The influence of Southern Liang art is particularly obvious in this image especially because an analogous image survives in China. The standing Kunsu-ri Bodhisattva also exhibits attributes very different from its contemperaneous Eastern Wei prototypes, such as an emphasis on the headgear and broad face and different iconographic styles employed. The smile of the image is a typical example of the famous Baekje smile commonly found on images from Baekje in both the sixth and seventh century.

Pensive Bodhisattva Maitreya, Baekje, late 6th century. Gilt bronze, H. 5.5 cm; L.: 5.5

[edit] Korean influence in early Japanese sculpture

The Baekje kingdom's style was particularly influential in the initial stages of Asuka sculpture. It was in 552 that King Seong of Baekje sent a gilt bronze image of Sakyumuni to Yamato Japan according to the Nihon Shoki. Most scholars, based on other Japanese records, consider a 538 date to be more accurate.^[32] While it is impossible to know what this first Buddha in Japan looked like, an image similar to the Yong'a Buddha, contemperaneous because it is dated to 539, leads some scholars to speculate that King Seong's proselytizing image looked similar to it. Another Japanese source, the Gangoji engi, however, identifies the image as the "prince." This suggests that the initial image was the prince Sidhartha in the pensive pose on the verge of enlightenment, an iconography popular in China. Images in the pensive pose are almost always associated with Maitreya in Korea. However, another iconography associated with the prince Sidhartha is the Buddha at birth. Since this source also lists items for a lustration ceremony some scholars believe that the image was of the infant Buddha. Although Buddhism was introduced into Yamato Japan at a relatively early period, it was not until the seventh century that the pro-Buddhist Soga clan succeeded in eliminating its rivals to allow Buddhism enjoy the support of the central polity.

A passage in the Nihon Shoki states that in 577 King Wideok of Baekje sent to the Yamato polity another Buddhist image, a temple architect, and a maker of images. The passage clearly indicates that the Japanese still needed Korean artisans skilled in metal casting techniques and knowledgeable about specific iconography to construct images. In 584, a stone statue of Maitreya and another image simply identified as a Buddha by the Nihon Shoki were sent as part of a diplomatic exchange and are the last official, royally commissioned Baekje images recorded to be sent to Japan in the sixth century. Such exchanges, both official and unofficial, were integral in establishing early Japanese Buddhist sculpture.

Many extant Baekje sculpture survive in Japan today. Horyu-ji Treasure no. 151 (image) is accepted by virtually all Japanese authorities to be of Korean origin ^[33] and was brought to Japan in the middle sixth century.^[34] The four rectangular cavities in the back of the statue is a trait far more common in Korean than Japanese sculpture.^[35] The image was probably used as a private devotional icon brought by Korean settlers. Hōryū-ji Treasure no. 158 (image), a pensive image is another image generally considered by Japanese scholars to be from Korea and is dated on stylistic grounds to the mid-sixth century.^[36]^[37] The Funagatayamajinja Bodhisattva, probably once part of a triad, has a crown with three flowers which was common early Three Kingdoms sculpture but not extant in Asuka sculpture. The image is believed to have originated in Korea.^[38]

Hōryū-ji Treasure no. 196 (image) is a mandorla for a triad that was made in Korea and can be arguably dated to the late sixth century, 594.^[39] The triad's inscription contains phrases very similar to two Paekche pieces, a Puyo triad (image) and a mandorla once part of a triad dated to 596 (image ). This mandorla incorporates the typical features found in older Korean-style triads, including the odd number of Buddhas of the Past, the floral scroll inside the inner halo, and the jewel found at the apex of the head halo.

[edit] Silla

Buddhism was officially accepted by the Silla court only in 527 or 528 although the religion was known to its people earlier due to the efforts of monks from Goguryeo in the fifth century.^[40]^[41] The late acceptance of the religion is often attributed to the geographic isolation of the kingdom, the lack of easy access to China, and the conservatism of the court. However, once Buddhism was accepted by the court, it received wholesale state sponsorship. One example of lavish state support is Hwangnyongsa, a temple which housed an approximately five meter tall Buddha.^[42] The statue was revered as one of the kingdom's three great treasures and was destroyed by the Mongols after surviving for 600 years. Excavations have revealed several small pieces of the Buddha and huge foundation stones remain to testify to the great size of the statue.^[43]