User:Josuechan/Fetus/Government of the Ming Dynasty

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[edit] Province, prefecture, subprefecture, county

The Ming emperors took over the provincial administration system of the Yuan Dynasty, and the territory was divided into two metropolitan areas (京) and thirteen provinces (省). Below the level of the province were prefectures (府) operating under a prefect, followed by subprefectures (州) under a subprefect. Finally, the lowest unit was the county (縣) overseen by a magistrate.[1] Thus, at the provincial level, the Yuan central government structure was copied; the bureaucracy contained three provincial commissions: one civil, one military, and one for surveillance.

[edit] Central administration

[edit] Institutional trends

The Forbidden City, the official imperial household of the Ming and Qing dynasties from 1420 until 1924, when the Republic of China evicted Puyi from the Inner Court.
The Forbidden City, the official imperial household of the Ming and Qing dynasties from 1420 until 1924, when the Republic of China evicted Puyi from the Inner Court.

Departing from the main central administrative system generally known as the Three Departments and Six Ministries system, which was instituted by various dynasties since late Han, the Ming administration had only one Department, the Secretariat, that controlled the Six Ministries. Following the execution of the Chancellor Hu Weiyong in 1380, emperor Hongwu abolished the Secretariat, the Censorate, and the Chief Military Commission and personally took charge of the Six Ministries and the Five Military Commissions.[2] Thus a whole level of administration was cut out and only partially rebuilt by subsequent rulers.[2] The Grand Secretariat, at the beginning a secretarial institution that assisted the emperor with administrative paperwork, was instituted, but without employing grand counselors, or chancellors. The ministries, headed by a minister and run by directors remained under direct control of the emperor until the end of the Ming. The Censorate was reinstalled and first staffed with investigating censors, later with censors-in-chief. As in prior dynasties, the provincial administrations were controlled by a travelling inspector from the Censorate. Censors had the power to impeach officials on an irregular basis, unlike the senior officials who were to do so only in triennial evaluations of junior officials.[3] Although decentralization in the provinces occurred in the early Ming, the trend of central government officials delegated to the provinces as virtual provincial governors began in the 1420s.[4] By the late Ming Dynasty, there were central government officials delegated to two or more provinces as supreme commanders and viceroys, a system which reigned in the power and influence of the military by the civil establishment.[4]

[edit] Grand Secretariat

Main article: Grand Secretariat

Governmental institutions in China conformed to a similar pattern for some two thousand years, but each dynasty installed special offices and bureaus, reflecting its own particular interests. The Ming administration had the Grand Secretaries assisting the emperor, with paperwork handled by them under Yongle's reign and finally appointed as top officials of agencies and Grand Preceptor, a top-ranking, non-functional civil service post, under the Hongxi Emperor (r. 1424–1425).[5] The Grand Secretariat drew its members from the Hanlin Academy and were considered part of the imperial authority, not the ministerial one (hence being at odds with both the emperor and ministers at times).[6]

[edit] Six Ministries

The Secretariat was a coordinating agency, whereas the Six Ministries—which were Personnel, Revenue, Rites, War, Justice, and Public Works—were direct administrative organs of the state.[7] The Ministry of Personnel was in charge of appointments, merit ratings, promotions, and demotions of officials, as well as granting of honorific titles.[8] The Ministry of Revenue was in charge of gathering census data, collecting taxes, and handling state revenues, while there were two offices of currency that were subordinate to it.[9] The Ministry of Rites was in charge of state ceremonies, rituals, and sacrifices; it also oversaw registers for Buddhist and Daoist priesthoods and even the reception of envoys from tributary states.[10] The Ministry of War was in charge of the appointments, promotions, and demotions of military officers, the maintenance of military installations, equipment, and weapons, as well as the courier system.[11] The Ministry of Justice was in charge of judicial and penal processes, but had no supervisory role over the Censorate or the Grand Court of Revision.[12] The Ministry of Works was in charge of government construction projects, hiring of artisans and laborers for temporary service, manufacturing government equipment, the maintenance of roads and canals, standardization of weights and measures, and the gathering of resources from the countryside.[12]

[edit] Local Administration

[edit] Bureaus and offices for the imperial household

The Ming Imperial Court, by an unknown artist, c. 1580 AD.
The Ming Imperial Court, by an unknown artist, c. 1580 AD.

The imperial household was staffed almost entirely by eunuchs and ladies with their own bureaus.[13] Female servants were organized into the Bureau of Palace Attendance, Bureau of Ceremonies, Bureau of Apparel, Bureau of Foodstuffs, Bureau of the Bedchamber, Bureau of Handicrafts, and Office of Staff Surveillance.[13] Starting in the 1420s, eunuchs began taking over these ladies' positions until only the Bureau of Apparel with its four subsidiary offices remained.[13] Hongwu had his eunuchs organized into the Directorate of Palace Attendants, but as eunuch power at court increased, so did their administrative offices, with eventual twelve directorates, four offices, and eight bureaus.[13] The dynasty had a vast imperial household, staffed with thousands of eunuchs, who were headed by the Directorate of Palace Attendants. The eunuchs were divided into different directorates in charge of staff surveillance, ceremonial rites, food, utensils, documents, stables, seals, apparel, and so on.[14] The offices were in charge of providing fuel, music, paper, and baths.[14] The bureaus were in charge of weapons, silverwork, laundering, headgear, bronzework, textile manufacture, wineries, and gardens.[14] At times, the most influential eunuch in the Directorate of Ceremonial acted as a de facto dictator over the state.[15][14]

Although the imperial household was staffed mostly by eunuchs and palace ladies, there was a civil service office called the Seal Office, which cooperated with eunuch agencies in maintaining imperial seals, tallies, and stamps.[16] There were also civil service offices to oversee the affairs of imperial princes.[17]

[edit] Surveillance and Judicial Agencies

[edit] Censorate

Main article: Censorate

The Censorate was a branch of the centralized bureaucracy, paralleling the Six Ministries and the five Chief Military Commissions and was directly responsible to emperor.[18] They were "the eyes and ears" of the emperor and checked administrators at each level to prevent corruption and misdoings, a common feature of that period. There are stories told about righteous censors revealing corruption as well as censors who accepted bribes. Generally speaking, they were feared and disliked and hence they constantly had to move around to perform their duties.

[edit] Offices of Scrutiny

[edit] Judiciary

[edit] Personnel

[edit] Scholar-officials

After the reign of Hongwu—who from 1373 to 1384 staffed his bureaus with officials gathered through recommendations only—the scholar-officials who populated the many ranks of bureaucracy were recruited through a rigorous examination system that was first established by the Sui Dynasty (581–618).[19][20][21] Theoretically the system of exams allowed anyone to join the ranks of imperial officials (although frowned upon for merchants to join); in reality the time and funding needed to support the study in preparation for the exam generally limited participants to those already coming from the landholding class.[22] However, the government did exact provincial quotas while drafting officials.[23] This was an effort to curb monopolization of power by landholding gentry who came from the most prosperous regions, where education was the most advanced.[23] The expansion of the printing industry since Song times enhanced the spread of knowledge and number of potential exam candidates throughout the provinces.[24] For young schoolchildren there were printed multiplication tables and primers for elementary vocabulary; for adult examination candidates there were mass-produced, inexpensive volumes of Confucian classics and successful examination answers.[25]

Candidates who had taken the civil service examinations would crowd around the wall where the results were posted; detail from a handscroll in ink and color on silk, by Qiu Ying (1494–1552).
Candidates who had taken the civil service examinations would crowd around the wall where the results were posted; detail from a handscroll in ink and color on silk, by Qiu Ying (1494–1552).[26]

As in earlier periods, the focus of the examination was classical Confucian texts,[19] while the bulk of test material centered on the Four Books outlined by Zhu Xi in the 12th century.[27] Ming era examinations were perhaps more difficult to pass since the 1487 requirement of completing the "eight-legged essay", a departure from basing essays off progressing literary trends.[28][27] The exams increased in difficulty as the student progressed from the local level, and appropriate titles were accordingly awarded successful applicants. Officials were classified in nine hierarchic grades, each grade divided into two degrees, with ranging salaries (nominally paid in piculs of rice) according to their rank.[29] While provincial graduates who were appointed to office were immediately assigned to low-ranking posts like the county graduates, those who passed the palace examination were awarded a jinshi ('presented scholar') degree and assured a high-level position.[30][31] In 276 years of Ming rule and ninety palace examinations, the number of doctoral degrees granted by passing the palace examinations was 24,874.[30] Ebrey states that "there were only two to four thousand of these jinshi at any given time, on the order of one out of 10,000 adult males."[22] This was in comparison to the 100,000 shengyuan ('government students'), the lowest tier of graduates, by the 16th century.[22]

The maximum tenure in office was nine years, but every three years officials were graded on their performance by senior officials.[32] If they were graded as superior then they were promoted, if graded adequate then they retained their ranks, and if graded inadequate they were demoted one rank.[3] In extreme cases, officials would be dismissed or punished.[3] Only capital officials of grade 4 and above were exempt from the scrutiny of recorded evaluation, although they were expected to confess any of their faults.[3] There were over 4,000 school instructors in county and prefectural schools who were subject to evaluations every nine years.[33] The Chief Instructor on the prefectural level was classified as equal to a second-grade county graduate.[33] The Supervisorate of Imperial Instruction oversaw the education of the heir apparent to the throne; this office was headed by a Grand Supervisor of Instruction, who was ranked as first class of grade three.[17]

[edit] Lesser functionaries

Scholar-officials who entered civil service through examinations acted as executive officials to a much larger body of non-ranked personnel called lesser functionaries.[34] They outnumbered officials by four to one; Charles Hucker estimates that they were perhaps as many as 100,000 throughout the empire.[34] These lesser functionaries performed clerical and technical tasks for government agencies.[34] Yet they should not be confused with lowly lictors, runners, and bearers; lesser functionaries were given periodic merit evaluations like officials and after nine years of service might be accepted into a low civil service rank.[34] The one great advantage of the lesser functionaries over officials was that officials were periodically rotated and assigned to different regional posts and had to rely on the good service and cooperation of the local lesser functionaries.[35]

[edit] Eunuchs, princes and generals

The Xuande Emperor playing chuiwan with his eunuchs, a game similar to golf, by an anonymous court painter of the Xuande period (1425-1435).
The Xuande Emperor playing chuiwan with his eunuchs, a game similar to golf, by an anonymous court painter of the Xuande period (1425-1435).

Eunuchs during the Ming Dynasty gained unprecedented power over state affairs. One of the most effective means of control was the secret service stationed in what was called the Eastern Depot at the beginning of the dynasty, later the Western Depot.[14] This secret service was overseen by the Directorate of Ceremonial, hence this state organ's often totalitarian affiliation.[14] Eunuchs had ranks that were equivalent to civil service ranks, only theirs had four grades instead of nine.[36]

Princes and descendants of the first Ming emperor were given nominal military commands and large land estates without title. These estates were not feudatories, the princes did not serve any administrative function, and it was only during the reign of the first two emperors that they partook in military affairs.[37] By contrast, princes in the Han and Jin Dynasties had been installed as local kings. Although princes served no organ of state administration, princes, consorts of imperial princesses, and ennobled relatives did staff the Imperial Clan Court, which took care of the imperial genealogy.[17]

Like scholar-officials, military generals were ranked in a hierarchic grading system and were given merit evaluations every five years (as opposed to three years for officials).[38] However, military officers had less prestige than officials. This was due to their hereditary service (instead of solely merit-based) and Confucian values that dictated those who chose the profession of violence (wu) over the cultured pursuits of knowledge (wen).[38][39] Although seen as less prestigious, military officers were not excluded from taking civil service examinations and after 1478 the military even held their own examinations to test military skills.[40] In addition to taking over the established bureaucratic structure from the Yuan period, the Ming emperors established the new post of the travelling military inspector. In the early half of the dynasty, men of noble lineage dominated the higher ranks of military office; this trend was reversed during the latter half of the dynasty as men from more humble origins eventually displaced them.[41]

[edit] See also

[edit] Notes

  1. ^ Hucker, 5.
  2. ^ a b Hucker, 28.
  3. ^ a b c d Hucker, 16.
  4. ^ a b Hucker, 23.
  5. ^ Hucker, 29–30.
  6. ^ Hucker, 30.
  7. ^ Hucker, 31–32.
  8. ^ Hucker, 32.
  9. ^ Hucker, 33.
  10. ^ Hucker, 33–35.
  11. ^ Hucker, 35.
  12. ^ a b Hucker, 36.
  13. ^ a b c d Hucker, 24.
  14. ^ a b c d e f Hucker, 25.
  15. ^ Hucker, 11.
  16. ^ Hucker, 25–26.
  17. ^ a b c Hucker, 26.
  18. ^ Hucker, 49.
  19. ^ a b Hucker, 12.
  20. ^ Ebrey (2006), 96.
  21. ^ Ebrey (1999), 145–146.
  22. ^ a b c Ebrey (1999), 199.
  23. ^ a b Ebrey (1999), 198–199.
  24. ^ Ebrey (1999), 201–202.
  25. ^ Ebrey (1999), 202.
  26. ^ Ebrey (1999), 200.
  27. ^ a b Ebrey (1999), 198.
  28. ^ Hucker, 13.
  29. ^ Hucker, 11–12.
  30. ^ a b Hucker, 14.
  31. ^ Brook, xxv.
  32. ^ Hucker, 15–16.
  33. ^ a b Hucker, 17.
  34. ^ a b c d Hucker, 18.
  35. ^ Hucker, 18–19.
  36. ^ Hucker, 24–25.
  37. ^ Hucker, 8.
  38. ^ a b Hucker, 19.
  39. ^ Fairbank, 109–112.
  40. ^ Hucker, 19–20.
  41. ^ Robinson (1999), 116–117.

[edit] References

  • Li, Konghuai (2007). History of Administrative Systems in Ancient China (in Chinese). Joint Publishing (H.K.) Co., Ltd.. ISBN 978-962-04-2654-4. 
  • Qian, Mu (1996). An Outline of the National History (in Chinese). The Commercial Press. ISBN 7-100-01766-1. 
  • Hucker, Charles O. (December 1958). "Governmental Organization of The Ming Dynasty". Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 21: 1-66.