Wikipedia:Jewish Encyclopedia topics/C2

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Contents

[edit] Section 1

  1. Chacham Tzebi (Chacham Zebi) JE See Ashkenazi,Ẓebi Hirsch b. Jacob.
  2. Chad-Gadya JE
  3. Chadad JE See Ḥadad.
  4. Chaff JE Separated husks of grain. The Bible frequently compares things evanescent to chaff blown away by the wind (Zeph. ii.
  5. Jacob Chagis (Moses Chagis) JE See Hagiz, Jacob; Hagiz, Moses, etc.
  6. Chaibar, Arabia JE
  7. Moses Avigdor Chaikin JE Rabbi and author; born at Sklow, government of Mohilev, in 1852, and removed at an early age with his father
  8. Chajes JE Talmudist, literary historian, and rabbi; born at Brody Nov. 20, 1805; died at Lemberg Oct. 12, 1855. His father, a
  9. Chajun JE
  10. Chalafta JE
  11. Phoebus Chalfan JE
  12. Chalilah JE
  13. Chalphi JE Father of Judas. The latter was one of the two captains who remained when all the others under Jonathan had
  14. Chalyzians JE A people who, according to the Byzantine historian, John Cinnamus (twelfth century), accepted the Mosaic law. They fought, together with
  15. Rab Chama JE
  16. Chamai (Chamai Gaon) JE
  17. Chamberlain JE The English rendering of V03p663006.jpg. This Hebrew word is also translated "officer" (Gen. xxxvii. 36; II Kings viii. 6). If
  18. Chambéry JE Capital of the department of Savoy, France. When the Jews were driven from France by Philippe Auguste in 1182, many
  19. Chamois JE The rendering of the Hebrew V03p665002.jpg (zemer), both in the A. V. and in the R. V., probably on the
  20. Rab Chana ben Chanilai JE
  21. Chanan, Chananeel, Chananya JE
  22. Löb Chaneles JE
  23. Chanilai JE
  24. Chanting JE
  25. Chao Yng-Cheng (Zhao Yingcheng, Chao Ying-ch'eng) JE Chinese mandarin; flourished about 1653. After the sack of K'ai Fung-Foo, which followed the fall of the Ming dynasty in
  26. Chaplet JE See Crown, Diadem, and Miter.
  27. John Chapman JE English educationist and communal worker; born 1845. Educated at Jews' College, London, he became an assistant master in that institution,
  28. Charaathalan JE Name occurring in I Esd. v. 36. It is a corruption of "Cherub," "Addan," and "Immer" (Ezra ii. 59 =
  29. Characa JE A city about 750 stadia distant from Caspis. It was the seat of the Jews called "Tubieni." Judas Maccabeus went
  30. Charashim JE
  31. Charchemish JE
  32. Chares JE Leader of the Zealots in the Judæo-Roman war, and one of the most eminent men of Gamala (Josephus, "B.
  33. Charger JE A rendering of two Hebrew words and a Greek one: (1) V03p666001.jpg (ḳa'arah), occurring in the list of the donations

[edit] Section 2

  1. Elizabeth Jane Caulfied, Countess of Charlemont JE Convert to Judaism; born June 21, 1834; died at Roxborough Castle, Moy, County Tyrone, Ireland, May 31, 1882. She was
  2. Charoseth (Haroseth, Charoset) JE
  3. Chartography (Cartography) JE The art of making maps. In the development of this art, during the Middle Ages, an epoch is made by
  4. Chasdai JE
  5. Moses Chaseisch JE German Talmudist; died at Halberstadt in 1793. Chaseisch enjoyed an established reputation among his contemporaries as a Talmudist, and was
  6. Moses ben Jacob Chaskes JE Neo-Hebrew poet and Russian translator; born in Wilna Sept. 27, 1848; removed later to Odessa. His first collection of Hebrew
  7. Proof of Chastity JE See Crime and Divorce.
  8. Château-Thierry JE Chief town of the arrondissement of the same name in the department of Aisne, France. At Château-Thierry, as in general
  9. History of the Jews in Chattanooga JE
  10. Jewish Chautauqua Society JE A society formed in the United States for "the dissemination of knowledge of the Jewish religion by fostering the study
  11. Chaves JE City in Portugal, which in the fourteenth century had a fairly large Jewish community, and an "aula," or school, "in
  12. Chaves JE Jewish-Portuguese family that derived its name from its native place of Chaves in Portugal; members of it are found in
  13. Chavillo JE
  14. Chazak JE See Forti, John.
  15. Joseph Chazanowicz JE Russian physician, and founder of the Jewish National Library at Jerusalem; born at Goniondz, government of Grodno, Russia, Oct. 22,
  16. Chazanuth JE
  17. Chebar JE Name of a Babylonian river or canal, by the side of which Ezekiel "saw visions" (Ezek. i. 1, 3; iii.
  18. Chechelnik JE Town in the government of Podolia, Russia, having (1898) a population of about 7,000, including 1,967 Jews. Their principal occupation
  19. Cheese JE The curd of milk run into molds and allowed to coagulate. This article of food was known to the ancient
  20. Raphael Joseph Chelebi JE See Raphael Joseph of Aleppo.
  21. Chellus JE Place mentioned in Judith i. 9 as lying before Kadesh and the River of Egypt. Reland ("Palæstina ex Monumentis Veteribus
  22. Ephraim ben Joseph Chelm JE
  23. Solomon ben Moses Chelm JE
  24. Chelod JE A name occurring in Judith i. 6b, and designating apparently the Chaldeans. In place of the rendering of the A.
  25. Chelub JE A Hebrew word meaning a cage, as in Jer. v. 27. It is also the name of two men: (1)
  26. Chemarim JE Plural of V04p009001.jpg; occurs as transliteration of the Hebrew in the English translation of Zeph. i. 4, and also as
  27. Chemerovtzy JE Small town in the government of Podolia, Russia, with (in 1898) an almost exclusively Jewish population of 1,282. About 160
  28. Chenaanah JE Feminine form of "Canaan"; the name of two men: (1) The fourth-named of the seven sons of Bilham, son of
  29. Chenaniah JE A Levite of the family of Izharites (I Chron. xxvi. 29) and chief of the Temple singers who conducted the

[edit] Section 3

  1. Chephirah JE City belonging originally to the Gibeonites (Josh. ix. 17), but which, in the apportionment of the land, fell to the
  2. Cherei JE A small town in the government of Mohilev, Russia, with (1898) about 3,000 inhabitants, of whom 1,300 are Jews. The
  3. Cherikov JE Town in the government of Mohilev, Russia. According to the last census (1897) it has 5,250 inhabitants, including 2,700 Jews.
  4. Chernevtzy JE Town in the government of Podolia, Russia; it has (1898) a population of about 15,000, including about 2,000 Jews. Of
  5. Chernigov JE A city in Russia; capital of the government of the same name. The Jewish settlement at Chernigov is one of
  6. Chernigov JE A government of Little Russia (Ukraine), with a Jewish population (1897) of 114,630 in a total population of 2,298,834, or
  7. Chesalon JE A border town of Judah (Josh. xv. 10), also known as "Mount Jearim." It lies in a directly west of
  8. Chess JE A game of skill, usually played by two persons, with sixteen pieces each, on a board divided into sixty-four squares
  9. Thomas Kelley Cheyne JE English Christian Biblical critic, and Oriel professor of Biblical exegesis at the University of Oxford, England; born at London Sept.
  10. Luigi Chiarini JE Italian abbé; born near Montepulciano, Italy, April 26, 1789; died at Warsaw Feb. 28, 1832. He was appointed professor of
  11. History of the Jews in Chicago JE Capital of Cook county, Illinois; the second largest city of the United States. It was incorporated as a city in
  12. The Chicago Israelite JE An American weekly newspaper devoted to Jewish interests; founded January, 1885, and first issued under the editorship of Leo Wise,
  13. Chidon JE The owner of the threshing-floor at which Uzza or Uzzah, attempting to steady the Ark of the Covenant, was killed
  14. Esther Chiera JE
  15. Chigrin JE Town in the government of Kiev, Russia, with a population (in 1897) of 9,870, including about 3,000 Jews. The latter
  16. Child Marriage JE
  17. Song of the Three Children JE
  18. History of the Jews in Chile JE A republic of South America, bounded by Peru on the north, Bolivia and the Argentine Republic on the east, and
  19. Chilmad JE Name occurring in the long list of those nations supplying merchandise for Tyre (Ezek. xxvii. 23). The Septuagint reads
  20. Chimham JE A son of Barzillai, who supported David while the latter was in exile at Mahanaim. After the death of Absalom,
  21. Rachel Mironowna Chin JE
  22. History of the Jews in China JE The southeastern and main division of the Chinese empire. The subject of the Jews in China is here treated in
  23. Simson of Chinon JE
  24. Chiquitilla JE
  25. Chisdai JE
  26. Chiun JE A word occurring in connection with "Siccuth" in Amos v. 26. Scholars have long been puzzled to know whether in
  27. Bogdan Zinovi Chmielnicki JE Hetman of the Zaporogian Cossacks, born about 1595; died at Chigirin Aug. 16, 1675. Unlike many other Little-Russian pupils of
  28. Choba JE A town included among those which the Jews fortified against the attacks of Holofernes. It is mentioned in two places
  29. Choir JE A collection of singers with trained voices who take part in divine service and who are separated from the congregation.

[edit] Section 4

  1. Cholera Asiatica JE A specific and communicable disease, characterized by violent vomiting and purging. It prevails endemically in some parts of India,
  2. Chor-Ashan JE This is, perhaps, better given, with the earlier manuscripts (Baer), as "Bor-ashan." The Septuagint also confirms the latter spelling,
  3. Franz Chorin JE Hungarian deputy; grandson of Aaron Chorin; born at Arad May 11, 1842. He studied law at Arad, Budapest, and Vienna,
  4. Joseph Judah Chorny JE Russian traveler; born at Minsk April 20, 1835; died at Odessa April 28, 1880. His parents destined him for the
  5. Chosaemus JE One of "the sons of Annas" that had "strange wives" (I Esd. ix. 32). The name can not be identified
  6. Chosen People JE Name for the Jewish people expressive of the idea of their having been chosen by God to fulfil the mission
  7. Joseph Chotzner JE English rabbi and author; born at Cracow, Austria, May 11, 1844; educated at the Breslau rabbinical seminary and the University
  8. Joseph Choynski JE American heavyweight pugilist; born at San Francisco, Cal., Nov. 8, 1868. His first appearance in the prize-ring was in 1884,
  9. Gustav Christopher Christian JE German author and Christian missionary; born of Jewish parents; baptized in 1719; died at Nuremberg about 1735. He was the
  10. Friedrich Albrecht Christiani JE Jewish convert to Christianity; born in the middle of the seventeenth century; died at Prossnitz at the beginning of the
  11. Moritz Wilhelm Christiani JE Author and Jewish convert to Christianity; born at Altorf at the end of the seventeenth century; died at Prague about
  12. Christianity in its relation to Judaism (see Judaism#Christianity_and_Judaism for a series of equivalent Wikipedia articles) JE Christianity is the system of religious truth based upon the belief that Jesus of Nazareth was the expected Messiah, or
  13. Ludwig Chronegk JE German actor; born at Brandenburg-on-the-Havel Nov. 3, 1837; died at Meiningen July 8, 1890. He was the stage-manager and "Intendanzrath"
  14. Joannes Chrysostomus (St. John Chrysostom) JE Patriarch of Constantinople, one of the most celebrated of the Church Fathers, and the most eminent orator of the early
  15. Chudnov JE Town in the government of Volhynia, Russia. A Jewish community existed here before the uprising of the Cossacks in 1648.
  16. Aron Mendes Chumaceiro JE Ḥakam of Curaçao, Dutch West Indies; born at Amsterdam Jan. 28, 1810; died there Sept. 18, 1882. He received the
  17. Abraham David Churriker JE Beni-Israel soldier and police officer; born 1822; died at Puna Nov. 2, 1867. He enlisted in the Third Regiment of
  18. Ciciruacchio JE
  19. Circumstantial Evidence JE Evidence consisting of circumstances which afford reasonable ground for believing in the guilt or innocence of an accused person. Circumstantial
  20. Samuel Löb Citron JE Hebrew writer of fiction and literary critic; born at Minsk, Russia, May 24, 1862. He attended the rabbinical school at

[edit] Section 5

  1. Ciudad Real JE Capital of the former province of La Mancha (now the province of Ciudad Real) in New Castile, founded in 1255
  2. Cividali JE Italian city, in the province of Udine. It is a part of the ancient duchy of Friuli, now divided between
  3. Emil Claar JE Austrian poet, playwright, and actor; born Oct. 7, 1842, in Lemberg. Early in life he went to Vienna with the
  4. Classical Writers and the Jews JE The name Ιουδαὶος is apparently first mentioned by Theophrastus, a philosopher of the fourth century B.C. He regards the Jews
  5. Ritius Namatianus Claudius JE Roman poet. He held high public offices in Rome, but returned (416) to Gaul, the land of his birth, after
  6. Isaiah Clava JE Spanish poet of Amsterdam. He translated from Hebrew into Spanish a Purim song, under the title "Cancio de Purim, Establecido
  7. Robert Clavering JE Bishop of Peterborough and Christian Hebraist; born in 1671; died July 21, 1747. He was regius professor of Hebrew at
  8. Clean and Unclean Animals (see Clean animal and Unclean animal) JE Animals ceremonially pure and fit for food, and such as are not. Biblical Data: The distinction between clean and unclean
  9. Cleanness and Uncleanness JE
  10. Daniel Chayyim Cleif (Daniel Hayyim Cleif) JE Russian rabbi; born in Amsterdam 1729; died there May 14, 1794. He settled in Hasenpoth, in the government of Courland,
  11. Clementina JE A series of kindred works of a Judæo-Christian sect of the second century, of which only the Homilies, the Recognitions,
  12. Cleopatra of Jerusalem JE One of the nine wives of Herod I., whom he married late in life. She bore to him Herod and
  13. Clerical Errors JE Errors made in the writing of documents, especially legal documents, for the prevention of which the Jews have many stringent
  14. Clermont-Ferrand JE Chief town of the department of Puy-de-Dôme, France. The origin of the Jewish community of Augusta-Nemetum (Clermont) is usually assigned
  15. Cleve, Germany JE
  16. Elijah Cleve JE See Gomperz Family.
  17. History of the Jews in Cleveland JE Capital of Cuyahoga county, Ohio, U. S. A.; situated at the mouth of the Cuyahoga River, and an important port
  18. Climation JE The adaptation of the individual to a new climate. It has been observed that when people emigrate to a strange
  19. Clisson JE Town in the department of Loire-Inférieure, France, formerly belonging to the province of Brittany. Clisson was a center of Jewish
  20. Pillar of Cloud JE When Israel was marching through the wilderness, Yhwh, wrapped in a pillar of cloud, preceded the people in order to
  21. Adolphe Coblence JE French army surgeon; born at Nancy May 11, 1812; died in Paris Sept 18, 1872. He entered the service of
  22. Gerson ben Isaac Moses Coblenz JE French rabbi and author; born about 1717; died at Metz in the first half of the eighteenth century. He was
  23. Cobo JE
  24. Joseph ben Abraham Cochabi JE
  25. Coen JE Physician-in-ordinary at the court of Prince Vassile Lupu, hospodar of Moldavia from 1634 to 1654. The dates of his birth
  26. Achille Coen JE Italian soldier; born at Leghorn in 1851. He studied at the military academy of his native town, and was appointed
  27. Benjamin Vitale Coen JE Italian rabbi; born at Alessandria della Paglia in the second half of the seventeenth century; died at Reggio nell' Emilia
  28. Giuseppe Coen JE Italian painter; born in Ferrara 1811; died in Venice Jan. 26, 1856. He was descended from an old and distinguished
  29. Graziadio Vita Anania Coen JE Italian, rabbi and scholar; born at Reggio nell' Emilia about 1750: died March 28, 1834. He studied under Sansone Naḥmani
  30. Jacob Coen JE Eldest son of Abraham Coen, and receiver-general ("contador mayor") of Count Maurice of Nassau, Stadtholder of the United Provinces of
  31. Josef di Michele Coen JE One of the Jewish boys of Rome baptized under Pope Pius IX.; born 1854. In 1864 he was apprenticed to

[edit] Section 6

  1. Moses Vita Coen JE Banker at Ferrara, Italy, in the eighteenth century. He often transacted business with Pope Clement XIII. and with his successor,
  2. Raffaelo del Fu Vitale Coen JE Austrian physician; born at Spalato, Dalmatia, Jan. 19, 1839. He was educated at the gymnasium of his native town and
  3. Coen-Cantarini JE
  4. Cohen JE A Baltimore family, originally from Bavaria, which has occupied an important place in the Jewish community and in municipal life
  5. Abner Cohen JE The pioneer of Krugersdorp, Transvaal Colony; born about 1860; emigrated to South Africa in 1881; worked his way north, and
  6. Abraham Cohen JE
  7. Abraham Cohen JE Assistant rabbi in Tunis; died 1840 at Safed, whither he had made a pilgrimage in his old age. He was
  8. Abraham Cohen JE Chief rabbi of Djerba, an island near Tunis; died in 1870. He was the author of a Hebrew poem, "Shir
  9. Alfred J. Cohen JE American dramatic critic; born May 14, 1861, at Birmingham, England, where he attended King Edward's School. Then followed three years'
  10. Anne-Jean-Philippe-Louis Cohen de Vinkenhoff JE French litterateur; born at Amersfort, in the Netherlands, Oct. 17, 1781; died in Paris April 6, 1848. Beginning as a
  11. Aristide Félix Cohen JE French author; born at Marseilles Dec. 31, 1831; died in Paris Feb. 17, 1896; brother of the composer Jules Cohen.
  12. Benjamin Louis Cohen JE British politician and communal worker; member of Parliament for East Islington since 1892; born in London in 1844; son of
  13. Benoit Cohen JE Philanthropist; born 1798 in Amsterdam; died in Paris July 15, 1856. He went to Paris as a young man, and
  14. David de Lara Cohen JE
  15. Edward Cohen JE Australian statesman; born in London 1822; died March, 1877. He received his early education in Australia, and entered into business
  16. Elias Cohen JE Turkish physician; born in 1844. He belongs to a family many members of which have been distinguished in medicine. His
  17. Ellen Gertrude Cohen JE English painter; studied at the Slade and Royal Academy schools, London, and in Paris under Constant and Laurens; first exhibited
  18. Emil Wilhelm Cohen JE German mineralogist; born at Aakjaer, near Horsens, Jutland, Oct. 12, 1842. He studied at the universities of Heidelberg and Berlin,
  19. Francis Cohen JE
  20. Francis Lyon Cohen JE English rabbi, author, and expert on Hebrew music; born at Aldershot Nov. 14, 1862, and educated at Jews' College and
  21. Halifa Cohen JE Tunisian rabbi residing (1902) at Djerba. He is the author of two Hebrew works: "Sifte Renanot" (Joyful Lips), a commentary
  22. Chayyim Cohen (Hayyim Cohen) JE Tunisian rabbi; lived in the second half of the nineteenth century, on the island of Djerba, near Tunis. He is
  23. Henri Cohen JE French composer and numismatist; born at Amsterdam 1805; died at Bry-sur-Marne May 17, 1880. Cohen's parents went to France in
  24. Henry Cohen JE American rabbi; born in London April 7, 1863. He was educated in London, and when only eighteen traveled in Africa
  25. Henry Emanuel Cohen JE Judge of the supreme court of New South Wales; born at PortMacquarie Dec., 1840. After receiving an ordinary education he
  26. Isaac Cohen JE English theatrical manager; born about 1835. He is one of the oldest of the London managers, having, first on the
  27. Jacob Raphael Cohen JE American ḥazzan; believed to have been born in the Barbary States; died in Philadelphia, Pa., Sept., 1811. Cohen lived in
  28. Jacob da Silva Solis Cohen JE Amerrican laryngologist; born in New York city Feb. 28, 1838. He was educated at the Central High School of Philadelphia,
  29. Joseph Cohen JE French journalist; born at Marseilles Nov. 1, 1817; died in Paris 1899. After finishing his studies at Aix, he was
  30. Josiah Cohen JE American lawyer and judge; born at Plymouth, England, Nov. 29, 1841, of a family long settled in Cornwall. He is
  31. Judah ben Isaac ben Moses Cohen JE Provençal philosopher of the middle of the fourteenth century. He was a disciple of Samuel of Marseilles, and a relative
  32. Jules Emile David Cohen JE French composer; born at Marseilles Nov. 2, 1830; died in Paris Jan., 1901; studied at the Paris Conservatoire, under Zimmerman,
  33. J. I. de Lissa Cohen JE Mauritius journalist; died May 31, 1879, at Curepipe. He was connected for nearly twenty years with journalism, and was editor
  34. Katherine M. Cohen JE American sculptor and painter; born in Philadelphia, Pa., March 18, 1859. She early evinced a taste for art, especially for
  35. Léonce Cohen JE French musician; born at Paris Feb. 12, 1829; died 1884. He studied at the Conservatory of Paris under Leborne. In
  36. Levi A. Cohen JE Journalist and champion of the Jews of Tangier; born at Mogador in 1844; died at Tangier Nov. 9, 1888. He
  37. Levi Ali Cohen JE Dutch physician and medical author; born Oct. 6, 1817, at Meppel, province of Drenthe, Holland; died Nov. 22, 1889, at
  38. Levy Barent Cohen JE English financier and communal worker; born at Amsterdam 1740; died in England 1808; son of Barent Cohen, a wealthy merchant
  39. Lionel Louis Cohen JE English financier, politician, and communal worker; born in London 1832; died there June 26, 1887; son of Louis Cohen, founder
  40. Louis Cohen JE English communal worker; born in London Sept., 1799; died there March 15, 1882. For two generations Cohen was a commanding
  41. Louis S. Cohen JE Lord mayor of Liverpool in 1899; born at Sydney, New South Wales, in 1846; son of Samuel Cohen, who represented
  42. Menahem Cohen JE
  43. Michel Cohen JE Dutch soldier; born Nov. 27, 1877, in Goes, province of Zeeland, Holland. After a common-school education at his native place,
  44. Moses Cohen JE Bulgarian journalist; born at Shumla, Bulgaria, in 1864. He published in French "Petite Histoire des Israélites," Philippopolis, 1897, a text-book

[edit] Section 7

  1. Moses ben Eliezer Cohen JE Moralist; lived in Germany, probably at Coblenz, in the second half of the fourteenth century. He was the author of
  2. Nahum Cohen JE Russian journalist; born in 1863; died at Yekaterinoslav Jan. 27, 1893. His ghetto story, "V Glukhom Myestechkye" (In a Dull
  3. Raphael Cohen JE
  4. Shabbethai Cohen JE
  5. Saul Cohen JE African rabbi; born in Djerba, North Africa, in 1772; died there April, 1848. Although blind and very poor, he was
  6. Shalom ben Jacob Cohen JE Polish Hebraist; born at Meseritz (Mezhiryechye), Poland, Dec. 23, 1772; died at Hamburg Feb. 20, 1845. Prompted by a love
  7. Solomon ben Eliezer Lipmann Cohen of Lissa JE German scholar; lived at Posen at the end of the eighteenth century and at the beginning of the nineteenth. He
  8. Solomon da Silva Solis Cohen JE American physician; born at Philadelphia, Pa., Sept., 1857. Educated in the public schools, he graduated from the Central High School
  9. Uri ben Eliezer Liebermann Cohen JE French Talmudist; died May, 1806, at an advanced age in his native city, Metz. His father was a member of
  10. David Cohen-Carlos JE A writer resident in Hamburg in the seventeenth century. In 1631 he either translated the Song of Songs into Spanish
  11. Ephraim Cohen-Lipschütz JE Italian rabbi and author of the second half of the seventeenth century. He was one of the rabbis at Modena,
  12. Judah ben Abraham Cohen-Tanugi JE Rabbi and writer; died at Tunis about 1835, at an advanced age. He is the author of two Hebrew works,
  13. Abraham Cohen Yitzaqi (Abraham Cohen-Yizaki) JE Tunisian rabbi and writer; born at Tunis; died there in 1864. He is the author of the following Hebrew works,
  14. Albert Cohn JE French philanthropist and scholar; born in Presburg, Hungary, Sept. 14, 1814; died at Paris March 15, 1877. He belonged to
  15. Bernard Cohn JE German physician; born March 30, 1827, at Breslau; died there June 16, 1864. He was educated at the gymnasium and
  16. Emil Cohn JE German physicist; born at Neu-Strelitz Sept. 28, 1854; studied at the University of Strasburg, whence he was graduated as Ph.D.
  17. Falk Cohn JE German rabbi; born at Dessau Sept. 18, 1833; died at Bonn March 6, 1901. The son of a rabbi and
  18. Georg Ludwig Cohn JE German jurist; born Sept. 19, 1845, at Breslau, Germany. He was honorary professor in German civil and commercial law at