Jerusalem

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

See also: East Jerusalem
Jerusalem

Jerusalem, viewed from the Mount of Olives

Emblem

Flag
Hebrew יְרוּשָׁלַיִם (Yerushalayim)
(Standard) Yerushalayim
Arabic commonly القـُدْس (Al-Quds);
officially in Israel أورشليم القدس
(Urshalim-Al-Quds)
Name meaning Hebrew: (see below),
Arabic: "The Holy"
Government City
District Jerusalem
Population 732,100[1] (2007)
Jurisdiction 125,156 dunams (125.2 km²)
Mayor Uri Lupolianski
Website www.jerusalem.muni.il[i]
Jerusalem seen from Spot Satellite
Jerusalem seen from Spot Satellite

Jerusalem (Hebrew: יְרוּשָׁלַיִם(audio) , Yerushaláyim; Arabic: القُدس (audio) , al-Quds)[ii] is the capital[iii] of Israel.

Including both Israeli citizens and Arab non-citizens, Jerusalem is the largest city in Israel[2] in both population and area,[3] with 732,100 residents in an area of 125.1 square kilometers (49 sq mi).[1][4] Located in the Judean Mountains, between the Mediterranean Sea and the northern tip of the Dead Sea, modern Jerusalem has grown up around the Old City. Its Jewish neighborhoods, circled around its civic and cultural hub, extend westward toward Israel's urban core in Gush Dan (Tel Aviv region). Its Arab neighborhoods stretch from the Old City to the East, towards Ramallah in the North, and towards Bethlehem in the South.

The city has a history that goes back as far as the 4th millennium BCE, making it one of the oldest cities in the world.[5] Jerusalem has been the holiest city in Judaism and the spiritual center of the Jewish people since the 10th century BCE,[6] contains a number of significant ancient Christian sites, and is widely considered the third-holiest city in Islam.[7] Despite having an area of only 0.9 square kilometer (0.35 square mile),[8] the Old City is home to several sites of key religious importance: the Temple Mount and its Western Wall for Jews, the Church of the Holy Sepulchre for Christians, and the Dome of the Rock and al-Aqsa Mosque for Muslims. The walled area of Jerusalem, which constituted the entire city until the 1860s, is now called the Old City, and was added to the List of World Heritage Sites in danger in 1982.[9] The Old City has been traditionally divided into four quarters, although the names used today—the Armenian, Christian, Jewish, and Muslim Quarters—were only introduced in the early 19th century.[10]

Today, Jerusalem remains a bone of contention in the Israeli-Palestinian conflict: Israel's annexation of East Jerusalem (captured in the 1967 Six-Day War) has been particularly controversial. Jerusalem has not been internationally recognized as Israel's capital, and no embassies are located in Jerusalem-proper. Palestinians view the eastern part of the city in which the Arab population resides as Occupied and consider East Jerusalem the capital of a potential Palestinian state.[11][12]

Contents

[edit] Etymology


Jerusalem
v  d  e
Further information: Names of Jerusalem

Although the precise origin of the Hebrew name for Jerusalem (Yerushalayim) remains uncertain, scholars have proposed a variety of interpretations. Some say it means "legacy of peace" — a combination of yerusha (legacy) and shalom (peace). "Shalom" is a cognate of the Hebrew name "Shlomo," i.e., King Solomon, the builder of the First Temple.[13][14] Alternatively, the second part of the word could be Salem (Shalem literally "whole" or "in harmony"), an early name for Jerusalem[15] that appears in the Book of Genesis.[16] Others cite the Amarna letters, where the Akkadian name of the city appears as Urušalim, a cognate of the Hebrew Ir Shalem. Some believe there is a connection to Shalim, the beneficent deity known from Ugaritic myths as the personification of dusk.[17]

A Midrashic interpretation in Genesis Rabba explains that Abraham came to the city, then called Shalem, after rescuing Lot.[18] Upon arrival, he asked the king and high priest Melchizedek to bless him, and Melchizedek did so in the name of God (indicating that he, like Abraham, was a monotheist). This encounter between Melchizedek and Abraham was commemorated by renaming the city in their honor: the name Yeru (derived from Yireh, the name Abraham gave to the Temple Mount) was combined with Shalem,[18] producing Yeru-Shalem, meaning the "city of Shalem," or "founded by Shalem." If shalem means "complete" or "without defect, "Yerushalayim would mean the "perfect city," or "the city of he who is perfect".[19] The ending -im indicates the plural in Hebrew grammar and -ayim the dual, leading to an interpretation of the name as representing two facets of the city, such as two hills.[20][21] The pronunciation of the last syllable as -ayim appears to be a late development, which had not yet appeared at the time of the Septuagint.

A city called Rushalimum appears in ancient Egyptian records, which many scholars believe to be the first reference to Jerusalem.[citation needed]

[edit] History

Main article: History of Jerusalem
See also: History of ancient Israel and Judah, History of Palestine, and Timeline of Jerusalem

Ceramic evidence indicates the occupation of Ophel, within present-day Jerusalem, as far back as the Copper Age, c. 4th millennium BCE,[22][5] with evidence of a permanent settlement during the early centuries of the Early Bronze Age, c. 3000-2800 BCE.[22] Ann Killebrew has shown how Jerusalem was a large and important walled city in the MB IIB and IA IIC (ca. 1800-1550 and 720-586 BCE), during the intervening Late Bronze (LB) and IA I and IIA/B Ages Jerusalem was a small and relatively insignificant and unfortified town.[23] The earliest written references to the city are probably in the Berlin and Brussels groups of Execration Texts (c. 19th century BCE) (which refer to a city called Roshlamem or Rosh-ramen)[22] and the Amarna letters (c. 14th century BCE).[24][25] Some archaeologists, including Kathleen Kenyon, believe Jerusalem as a city was founded by West Semitic people with organized settlements from around 2600 BCE. According to Jewish tradition the city was founded by Shem and Eber, ancestors of Abraham. The Biblical account portrays the Jebusites as having control of the city, inhabiting the area around the present-day city until the late 11th century BCE when David is said to have invaded and conquered their city, Jebus, and established it as the capital of the United Kingdom of Israel and Judah (c. 1000s BCE).[26][27][iv] Recent excavations of a large stone structure are interpreted by some archaeologists as lending credence to the biblical narrative.[citation needed]

[edit] Temple periods

According to the Hebrew Bible, David reigned until 970 BCE, when his son Solomon became king of Israel.[28] Within a decade, Solomon began to build the Holy Temple on Mount Moriah inside the city. Solomon's Temple (later known as the First Temple), went on to play a pivotal role in Jewish history as the repository of the Ark of the Covenant.[29] The next four centuries, up until the destruction of Solomon's Temple (c. 586 BCE), are known in history as the First Temple Period.[30] Upon Solomon's death (c. 930 BCE), the ten northern tribes split off to form the Kingdom of Israel. Under the leadership of the House of David and Solomon, Jerusalem remained the capital of the Kingdom of Judah.[31]

The Tower of David as seen from the Hinnom Valley
The Tower of David as seen from the Hinnom Valley

When the Assyrians conquered the Kingdom of Israel in 722 BCE, Jerusalem was strengthened by a great influx of refugees from the northern kingdom. The First Temple period ended around 586 BCE, as the Babylonians conquered Judah and Jerusalem, and laid waste to Solomon's Temple.[31] However, many claims of the Fall of Jerusalem are gathered from the Ptolemaic records, in which some dates have been found to be erroneous. Some religions claim that Jerusalem fell in 606-607 BCE; however, no historical evidence supports that the 18th or 19th year of Nebuchadrezzar was in the year 607 BCE, and Zecharias 7:1-5 establishes the year 587 BCE for the complete and final attack on Jerusalem by the Babylonians.

In 538 BCE, after fifty years of Babylonian captivity, Persian King Cyrus the Great permitted the Jews to return to Judah to rebuild Jerusalem and their holy temple. Construction of the Second Temple, was completed in 516 BCE, during the reign of Darius the Great, seventy years after the destruction of the First Temple.[32][33] Jerusalem resumed its role as capital of Judah and center of Jewish worship. When Macedonian ruler Alexander the Great conquered the Persian Empire, Jerusalem and Judea fell under Macedonian control, eventually falling to the Ptolemaic dynasty under Ptolemy I. In 198 BCE, Ptolemy V lost Jerusalem and Judea to the Seleucids under Antiochus III. The Seleucid attempt to recast Jerusalem as a Hellenized polis came to a head in 168 BCE with the successful Maccabean revolt of Mattathias the High Priest and his five sons against Antiochus Epiphanes, and their establishment of the Hasmonean Kingdom in 152 BCE with Jerusalem again as its capital.[34]

[edit] The Jewish-Roman wars and the Jewish diaspora

Siege and Destruction of Jerusalem by the Romans (1850 painting by David Roberts)
Siege and Destruction of Jerusalem by the Romans (1850 painting by David Roberts)

As Rome became stronger it installed Herod as a Jewish client king. Herod the Great, as he was known, devoted himself to developing and beautifying the city. He built walls, towers and palaces, and expanded the Temple Mount, buttressing the courtyard with blocks of stone weighing up to 100 tons. Under Herod, the area of the Temple Mount doubled in size.[35][36][28] In 6 CE, the city, as well as much of the surrounding area, came under direct Roman rule as the Iudaea Province[37] and Herod's descendants through Agrippa II remained client kings of Judea until 96 CE. Roman rule over Jerusalem and the region began to be challenged with the first Jewish-Roman war, the Great Jewish Revolt, which resulted in the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE. In 130 CE Hadrian Romanized the city, and renamed it Aelia Capitolina.[38] Jerusalem once again served as the capital of Judea during the three-year rebellion known as the Bar Kochba revolt. The Romans succeeded in recapturing the city in 135 CE and as a punitive measure Hadrian banned the Jews from entering it. As a result the city became entirely pagan (non-Jewish). Hadrian proceeded to rename the entire Iudaea Province to Syria Palaestina after the Biblical Philistines in an attempt to thwart future rebellion and to de-Judaize Judea.[39][40] Enforcement of the ban on Jews entering Aelia Capitolina continued until the 4th century CE.

In the five centuries following the Bar Kokhba revolt, the city remained under Roman then Byzantine rule. During the 4th century, the Roman Emperor Constantine I constructed Christian sites in Jerusalem such as the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. Jerusalem reached a peak in size and population at the end of the Second Temple Period: The city covered two square kilometers (0.8 sq mi.) and had a population of 200,000[41][39] From the days of Constantine until the Seventh Century, Jews were banned from Jerusalem.[42]

[edit] Roman-Persian Wars

Within the span of just a few decades, Jerusalem shifted from Roman to Persian rule and returned to Roman dominion once more. Following Sassanid Khosrau II's early seventh century push into Byzantine and advancing through Syria, Sassanid Generals Shahrbaraz and Shahin decided to attack the famous Byzantine-controlled city of Jerusalem (Persian: Dej Houdkh).[43]

Providing access to the Mediterranean Sea, the city would provide a strategic location for the Sassanids to begin constructing a naval fleet and its capture would undoubtedly weaken the Byzantine-Empire's overseas strength. In the Siege of Jerusalem (614), after 21 days of relentless siege warfare, Jerusalem was captured and the Persian victory resulted in the territorial annexation of Jerusalem. After the Sassanid army entered Jerusalem, the holy "True Cross" was stolen and sent back to the Sassanian capital as a battle-captured holy relic, and the Jewish rebels joined the Persians. General Shahrbaraz ordered a swift razing and looting of Jerusalem. Having recognized the assistance of the Jews in the significant capture, he even gave them the opportunity to personally massacre their Christian enemies. The conquered city and the Holy Cross would remain in Sassanid hands for some fifteen years until the Byzantine Emperor Heraclius recovered them in 629.[43]

[edit] Islamic rule

In 638, the Islamic Caliphate extended its dominion to Jerusalem. With the Arab conquest, Jews were allowed back into the city.[44] The Rashidun caliph Umar ibn al-Khattab signed a treaty with Monophysite Christian Patriarch Sophronius, assuring him that Jerusalem's Christian holy places and population would be protected under Muslim rule. Umar was then led to the Temple Mount, where the Foundation Stone lay, and he and other Muslims began cleaning up the site to build the al-Aqsa Mosque. Umar was invited by Sophronius to pray at the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, but refused fearing future generations of Muslims would claim the church as their own. Instead, however, he arranged the construction of the Mosque of Umar across from the church.[45]

By the end of the 7th century, the Umayyad caliph Abd al-Malik had commissioned and completed the construction of the Dome of the Rock over the Foundation Stone.[46] In the four hundred years that followed, Jerusalem's prominence diminished as Arab powers in the region jockeyed for control.[47]

[edit] Shifts in control: The Crusades, Saladin, and the Mamluks

Medieval illustration of capture of Jerusalem during the First Crusade, 1099
Medieval illustration of capture of Jerusalem during the First Crusade, 1099
17th century drawing by a German traveler
17th century drawing by a German traveler

In 1099, Jerusalem was besieged by the First Crusaders, who massacred most of its Muslim and Jewish inhabitants.[48] That would be the first of several conquests to take place over the next four hundred years. In 1187, the city was taken from the Crusaders by Saladin.[49] Between 1228 and 1244, it was given by Saladin's descendant al-Kamil to the Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II. Jerusalem fell again in 1244 to the Khawarizmi Turks, who were later, in 1260, replaced by the Mamluks led by Baibars.

[edit] Ottoman rule

In 1517, Jerusalem and its environs fell to the Ottoman Turks, who would maintain control of the city until the 20th century.[49] In the 16th and 17th centuries, the walls of Jerusalem were rebuilt and nomadic marauders were staved off. Regional trade flourished and Jerusalem's economy and population expanded until the 18th and 19th centuries, as the power of the Ottoman Empire receded and Turkish investment in the city declined.

The mid-19th century saw radical shifts in the political climate in the city, along with a new international presence in the city. After the Egyptian General Ibrahim Pasha's occupation of Syria in 1832, foreign missions and consulates were established throughout the province that the Ottomans were unable to dislodge following re-occupation. This era saw the first expansion outside the Old City walls, as new neighborhoods were established to relieve overcrowding, starting with the construction of new buildings inside and outside the town by the English and German Protestants in the 1840's. Wealthy Muslim families built Ottoman-style villas on the edge of the burgeoning German Colony, establishing a new center for leading Arab families. The period saw the first waves of Jewish immigration from Europe, and the first of the new Jewish neighborhoods outside the city walls included the Russian Compound, the Jewish Mishkenot Sha'ananim, both founded in 1860[50]. Later, Bukhari Jews formed the Bukhari Compound, and poor Middle Eastern Jews moved out of the Old City to form the neighborhood of Nakhlaot. The era saw a building boom and cultural efflorescence that continued without interruption until World War One.

[edit] British Mandate transition period and the 1948 Arab-Israeli War

In 1917 after the Battle of Jerusalem, the British Army, led by General Edmund Allenby, captured the city.[51] The League of Nations, through its 1922 ratification of the Balfour Declaration, entrusted the United Kingdom to administer the Mandate for Palestine and help establish a "Jewish National Home" in the region.[52] The period of the Mandate saw the construction of new garden suburbs in the western and northern parts of the city[53][54] and the establishment of institutions of higher learning such as the Hebrew University, founded in 1925.[55]

Eric H. Cline, author of Jerusalem Besieged, notes that Jerusalem has been destroyed at least twice, besieged 23 times, attacked an additional 52 times, and captured and recaptured 44 times.[56]

As the British Mandate for Palestine was expiring, the 1947 UN Partition Plan (Part III) recommended "the creation of a special international regime in the City of Jerusalem, constituting it as a corpus separatum under the administration of the United Nations."[57] The international regime was to remain in force for a period of ten years, whereupon a referendum was to be held in which the residents of Jerusalem were to decide the future regime of the city. (Jerusalem had a Jewish majority both in 1948 and in 1958.)[58] However, this plan was not implemented as the Haganah and the Jordanian Arab Legion fought for control of the city. On May 28, the Arab Legion gained control over the Old City; all of its Jewish inhabitants were either taken prisoner or handed over to the Red Cross to be permanently transferred to Israeli-controlled areas.[59]

The 1948 War occasioned massive displacement of Arab and Jewish populations shifting space in conjunction with shifts in control. Due to mob and militia violence on both sides, 1,500 of the 3,500 (mostly ultra-Orthodox) Jews in the Old City moved to west Jerusalem as a unit. The Arab town of Lifta (today within the bounds of Jerusalem) was captured by the nascent Israeli troops in 1948, and its residents were loaded on trucks and taken to East Jerusalem.[60] [61][62] In addition to the depopulation of thousands of Arabs from Jerusalem's surrounding villages of Lifta, Deir Yassin, Ein Karem, and al-Maliha, all predominantly Arab urban centers ringing the western side of Jerusalem's old city were transferred to Israeli control (i.e. Talbiya, al-Qatamon, upper and lower Baqa'a, Mamilla, and Abu-Tur-Musrara).[63] [64]

[edit] Establishment of the State of Israel

View of Mishkenot Sha'ananim, one of the first Jewish neighborhoods built outside the Old City, today
View of Mishkenot Sha'ananim, one of the first Jewish neighborhoods built outside the Old City, today
See also: UN General Assembly Resolution 194

At the end of the 1948 Arab-Israeli War, Jerusalem found itself divided between Israel and Jordan (then known as Transjordan). The ceasefire line established through the Armistice Agreement of 1949 between Israel and Jordan, cut through the center of the city from 1949 until 1967, during which time West Jerusalem was part of Israel and East Jerusalem was part of Jordan. In 1949, Israel designated West Jerusalem as its capital. Contrary to the terms of the Armistice Agreement of 1949 between Jordan and Israel, Israelis were denied access to Jewish holy sites, many of which were desecrated, and only allowed extremely limited access to Christian holy sites.[65][66]

Following the 1967 Six-Day War Israel captured East Jerusalem, asserted sovereignty over the entire city, and later in 1980 declared Jerusalem, "complete and united", to be the capital of Israel.[67] This action, however, was criticised in the non-binding UNSC resolution 478, which declared the assertion of sovereignty to be "null and void." Further, East Jerusalem has been seen by the Palestinian Arabs as a possible capital of a proposed Palestinian state.[68][69] They also refer to Security Council resolution 252, which considers invalid expropriation of land and other actions that tend to change the legal status of Jerusalem.[70] The status of the city and of its holy places remains disputed to this day.

[edit] Geography

View of Jerusalem Forest from Yad Vashem
View of Jerusalem Forest from Yad Vashem

Jerusalem is situated around 31°47′N, 35°13′E on the southern spur of a plateau in the Judean Mountains, which include the Mount of Olives (East) and Mount Scopus (North East). The elevation of the Old City is approximately 760 m.[71] The whole of Jerusalem is surrounded by valleys and dry riverbeds (wadis), although those to the north are less pronounced than those on the other sides.

Three of the most prominent valleys in the region, the Kidron, Hinnom, and Tyropoeon Valleys, intersect in an area just south of the Old City of Jerusalem.[72] The Kidron Valley runs just to the east of the Old City and separates the Mount of Olives from the city proper. Along the southern side of old Jerusalem is the Valley of Hinnom, a steep ravine associated in Biblical eschatology with the concept of Gehenna or hell.[73] A third valley commenced in the northwest near the present-day location of Damascus Gate, ran south-southeasterly through the center of the Old City down to the Pool of Siloam, and divided the lower part into two hills, the Temple Mount to the east, and the rest of the city to the west (the lower and the upper cities described by Josephus). Today, this valley, the Tyropoeon Valley, is mostly hidden from view due to the amount of debris that has accumulated within the ravine over the past few millennia.[72]

Jerusalem is 60 kilometers (37 mi)[74] east of Tel Aviv and the Mediterranean Sea. On the opposite side of the city, approximately 35 kilometers (22 mi)[75] away, is the Dead Sea, the lowest body of water on Earth. Neighboring cities and towns include Bethlehem and Beit Jala to the south, Abu Dis and Ma'ale Adumim to the east, Mevaseret Zion to the west, and Ramallah and Giv'at Ze'ev to the north.[76][77][78]

[edit] Climate

The city is characterized by a Mediterranean climate, with hot, dry summers, warm to cool spring and autumn, and cool, wet winters. Significant snowfall occurs every couple of winters, with trace snow in 4 out of 5 winters on average. January is the coldest month of the year, with an average monthly temperature of 8 °C (46 °F). July and August are the hottest months, with an average monthly temperature of 23 °C (73 °F).[79] Temperatures vary widely from day to night, and Jerusalem evenings are typically cool even in summer. The average annual precipitation is close to 590 millimetres (23 in) with rain occurring mostly between October and May.[79]

Weather averages for Jerusalem
Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Average high °C (°F) 12 (53) 13 (56) 16 (61) 21 (70) 25 (77) 28 (82) 29 (84) 29 (84) 28 (82) 25 (77) 19 (66) 14 (57)
Average low °C (°F) 4 (39) 4 (40) 6 (43) 9 (49) 12 (54) 15 (59) 17 (63) 17 (63) 16 (61) 14 (57) 9 (49) 6 (42)
Precipitation mm (inches) 142.2 (5.6) 114.3 (4.5) 99.1 (3.9) 30.5 (1.2) 2.5 (0.1) 0 (0) 0 (0) 0 (0) 0.0 (0.0) 22.9 (0.9) 68.8 (2.7) 109.2 (4.3)
Source: The Weather Channel[80]

Most of the air pollution in Jerusalem comes from vehicular traffic, especially in East Jerusalem.[81] Many main streets in Jerusalem were not built to accommodate such a large volume of traffic, leading to traffic congestion and more carbon monoxide released into the air. Industrial pollution inside the city is sparse, but emissions from factories on the Israeli Mediterranean coast can travel eastward and settle over the city.[81][82]

[edit] Development plans

(Below is a partial listing of important plans in the city center. See end of article for listing of neighborhoods and settlements of Jerusalem, or see List of places in Jerusalem.)

Kikar Ha Chatulim, Museum of Human Dignity: Kikar Ha Chatulim is a small square in the immediate vicinity of the West Jerusalem city center, Zion Square, a few minute's walk from the Old City. The American Jewish institution, the Simon Wiesenthal Center, has launched the development of a 'Museum of Tolerance and Human Dignity' modeled after its media-based Hollywood-style museum in Los Angeles, to be located adjacent to Independence Park on the grounds of Mamila cemetery,[83] largely regarded as the most important Muslim cemetery in the region.[84] Frank Gehry has designed the future museum in the theme of a fruit bowl.[85] The plan has elicited a considerable outcry from many in the Israeli archaeologist community as well as Muslim authorities, and has been stayed several times by the courts. It has also been critiqued for its emphasis on tolerance amongst Jews (rather than Palestinians and Israelis) and for the Simon Wiesenthal Center's lack of transparency throughout the process.[86][87] The museum is due for completion in 2009.[88]

Mamila Complex: As of 2008, this former Mizrahi ghetto directly adjacent to the Old City was in the process of redevelopment into an elite complex with luxury apartments and a shopping center.[89] During the construction stage the project significantly altered the layout of downtown Jerusalem.

Silwan, City of David: Silwan is a Palestinian town of 45,000 located directly southeast of the Old City, extending along the Kidron Valley and running alongside the eastern slopes of Jabal Al-Mukaber. On maps issued by the Israeli government and organizations, part of Silwan is labeled 'City of David' (Ir David in Hebrew). Since Israel gained control over East Jerusalem in 1967, Jewish settler organizations have sought to root a Jewish presence in Silwan. In particular the ElAd Foundation, linked with ElAd Properties, a real estate company owned by a fundamentalist settler organization based in New York,[90] was established in 1986[91]with the aim of constructing a modern-day City of David' in the place of the Palestinian village of Silwan. The State of Israel has entrusted full responsibility and control over the archaeological sites in Silwan to ElAd. Haaretz has reported that ElAd destroyed Palestinian archaeological findings[92] and conducted excavations in the midst of Palestinian properties.[93] Writes The Times Online, according to Israeli anti-settlement campaigners, "Jewish settler groups are digging an extensive tunnel network under Muslim areas of Jerusalem's Old City while building a ring of settlements around it to bolster their claim to the disputed city in any future peace deal."[94] In 2005, Al-Ayyam reported Israeli government plans to demolish 88 Palestinian homes in Al-Bustan neighborhood[95] to make way for ElAd's planned archaeological park. Over the years 50 Jewish families have moved live in the area and more are being recruited.[96] As of April 2008, the Israeli High Court had issued a temporary order staying further construction for the time being.[97]

[edit] Demographics

Population of Jerusalem
Year Total
1844 15,510
1876 25,030
1896 45,420
1922 62,578
1931 90,053
1944 157,000
1948 165,000
1967 263,307
1980 407,100
1985 457,700
1990 524,400
1995 617,000
2000 657,500
2005 706,400

In May 2007, Jerusalem had a population of 743,000, of whom 68% were Jewish, 30% were Muslim, and 2% were Christian, and a population density of 5,750.4 inhabitants per square kilometer (14,893.5/sq mi).[3][98] In 2005, Jerusalem received 2,850 immigrants, with nearly three quarters of them arriving from the United States, France, and former members of the Soviet Union. Within Israel, emigrants from Jerusalem outnumber immigrants to the city. In 2005, over ten thousand Israelis migrated to Jerusalem while over sixteen thousand left the city.[3] The population of Jerusalem, however, continues to rise due to high birth rates, especially among the Arab and Haredi Jewish communities (whose birth rates are higher than the Israeli national average). Consequently, the total fertility rate in Jerusalem (4.02) is far higher than those of comparable cities in the region such as Tel Aviv (1.98) and well above the national average of 2.90. Similarly, the average size of Jerusalem's 180,000 households is 3.8 people.[3]

In 2005, the total number of residents in Jerusalem grew by approximately 13,000 (1.8%) — similar to Israeli national average. However, as the city has continued to grow, the religious and ethnic composition of Jerusalem has proceeded to shift. Although children under age fifteen account for 31% of the Jewish population, they account for 42% of the Arab one.[3] These recent data corroborate the observation that the percentage of Jews in Jerusalem has been declining over the past four decades. In 1967, the year of the Six-Day War, Jews accounted for 74 percent of the population, which is nine percent more than 2006.[99] Explanations for this decline are the soaring cost of housing in Jerusalem, the smaller job market and the growing religious character of the city. Many young people are moving to the suburbs and coastal cities in search of cheaper housing and the more secular lifestyle offered by other cities.[100]

Demographics and the Jewish-Arab population divide continue to play a major role in the dispute over Jerusalem. In 1998, the Jerusalem Development Authority proposed expanding city limits to the west to include more areas heavily populated with Jews.[101]

[edit] Local government

Safra Square, Jerusalem City Hall
Safra Square, Jerusalem City Hall

The Jerusalem City Council has thirty-one elected members, one of whom is the mayor. The mayor serves a five-year term and appoints six deputies. The current mayor of Jerusalem, Uri Lupolianski was elected in 2003.[102] Apart from the mayor and his deputies, City Council members receive no salaries and work on a voluntary basis. The longest-serving Jerusalem mayor was Teddy Kollek, who spent twenty-eight years — six consecutive terms — in office. Most of the meetings of the Jerusalem City Council are private, but each month, it holds a session that is open to the public.[102] Within the city council, religious political parties form an especially powerful faction, accounting for the majority of its seats.[103] The headquarters of the Jerusalem Municipality and the mayor's office are at Safra Square (Kikar Safra) on Jaffa Road. The new municipal complex, comprising two modern buildings and ten renovated historic buildings surrounding a large plaza, opened in 1993.[104] The city falls under the Jerusalem District, with Jerusalem as the district's capital.

[edit] Capital of Israel

Further information: Positions on Jerusalem
See also: Politics of Israel
Office of the President of Israel (2007)
Office of the President of Israel (2007)

By Israeli law, Jerusalem is the de-jure capital of Israel, and de-facto contains the parliament, government offices, Supreme Court, President's quarters, and Prime Ministers's quarters. However Jerusalem has not been recognized internationally as the capital of Israel. Many countries see Jerusalem as equally the capital of the future Palestinian state, or view the city as a shared international heritage site that should be governed by a range of stakeholders locally and worldwide.

On December 5, 1949, the State of Israel's first Prime Minister, David Ben-Gurion, proclaimed Jerusalem as Israel's capital[105] and since then all branches of the Israeli governmentlegislative, judicial, and executive — have resided there.[106] At the time of the proclamation, Jerusalem was divided between Israel and Jordan and thus only West Jerusalem was considered Israel's capital. Immediately after the 1967 Six-Day War, however, Israel annexed East Jerusalem, making it a de facto part of the Israeli capital. Israel enshrined the status of the "complete and united" Jerusalem — west and east — as its capital, in the 1980 Basic Law: Jerusalem, Capital of Israel.[67]

The Knesset Building in Jerusalem, home to the legislative branch of the Israeli government
The Knesset Building in Jerusalem, home to the legislative branch of the Israeli government

The status of a "united Jerusalem" as Israel's "eternal capital"[107][105] has been a matter of immense controversy within the international community. Although some countries maintain consulates in Jerusalem, and two maintain embassies in Jerusalem suburbs, all embassies are located outside of the city proper, mostly in Tel Aviv.[108][109]

The non-binding United Nations Security Council Resolution 478, passed on August 20, 1980, declared that the Basic Law was "null and void and must be rescinded forthwith." Member states were advised to withdraw their diplomatic representation from the city as a punitive measure. Most of the remaining countries with embassies in Jerusalem complied with the resolution by relocating them to Tel Aviv, where many embassies already resided prior to Resolution 478. Currently there are no embassies located within the city limits of Jerusalem, although there are embassies in Mevaseret Zion, on the outskirts of Jerusalem, and four consulates in the city itself.[108] In 1995, the United States Congress had planned to move its embassy from Tel Aviv to Jerusalem with the passage of the Jerusalem Embassy Act.[110] However, U.S. presidents, including President Bush and President Clinton, have argued that Congressional resolutions regarding the status of Jerusalem are merely advisory. The Constitution reserves foreign relations as an executive power, and as such, the US embassy is still in Tel Aviv.[111] Israel's most prominent governmental institutions, including the Knesset,[112] the Supreme Court,[113] and the official residences of the President and Prime Minister, are located in Jerusalem.

[edit] Palestinian claims

Further information: Positions on Jerusalem (Palestinian)

Prior to the creation of the State of Israel, Jerusalem served as the administrative capital of the British Mandate of Palestine, which included present-day Israel and Jordan.[114] From 1949 until 1967, West Jerusalem served as Israel's capital but was not recognized internationally as Israel's capital, because UN General Assembly Resolution 194 ruled Jerusalem an international city. As a result of the Six-Day War in 1967, the whole of Jerusalem came under Israeli control. According to the Oslo Accords, the final status of Jerusalem should be determined by peaceful negotiations, as the Palestinian National Authority sees East Jerusalem as the capital of a future Palestinian state.[11] Orient House was the headquarters of the Palestine Liberation Organization in the 1980s and 1990s, but is currently closed.[115]

Palestinian officials have encouraged Arabs over the years to stay in the city to maintain their claim. Jerusalem has been a magnet for Arab migrants, offering more jobs than any city in the West Bank or Gaza Strip.[116] Palestinians are attracted to the access to jobs, healthcare, social security, other benefits, and overall quality of life Israel provides to Jerusalem residents.[117] Arab residents of Jerusalem who choose not to have Israeli citizenship are granted an Israeli identity card that allows them to pass through checkpoints with relative ease and to travel throughout Israel, making it easier to find work. Residents also are entitled to the subsidized healthcare and social security benefits Israel provides its citizens. Palestinians in Jerusalem can send their children to Israeli-run schools, although not every neighborhood has one, and universities. Israeli doctors and highly regarded hospitals such as Hadassah Medical Center are available to residents.[118]

[edit] Culture

The Shrine of the Book, housing the Dead Sea Scrolls, at the Israel Museum
The Shrine of the Book, housing the Dead Sea Scrolls, at the Israel Museum

Although Jerusalem is known around the world for its religious significance, the city is also home to many artistic and cultural venues. The Israel Museum, Jerusalem's premier art museum, annually attracts nearly one million visitors, approximately one-third of them international tourists.[119] The twenty-acre museum complex comprises several buildings featuring special exhibits and extensive collections of Judaica, archaeological findings, and Israeli and European art. The Dead Sea scrolls, discovered in the mid-twentieth century in the Qumran caves near the Dead Sea, are housed in the Museum's Shrine of the Book.[120] The Youth Wing, which mounts changing exhibits and runs an extensive art education program, is visited by 100,000 children a year. The museum has a large outdoor sculpture garden, and a scale-model of the Second Temple was recently moved from the Holyland Hotel to a new location on the museum grounds.[119] Other museums affiliated with the Israel Museum are the Rockefeller Archaeological Museum, Ticho House, and the Paley Center of Art. The Rockefeller Museum, located in East Jerusalem, was the first archaeological museum in the Middle East. It was built in 1938 during the British Mandate.[121][122] Ticho House, in downtown Jerusalem, houses the paintings of Anna Ticho and the Judaica collections of her husband, an ophthalmologist who opened Jerusalem's first eye clinic in this building in 1912.[123]

Mahane Yehuda Market in West Jerusalem
Mahane Yehuda Market in West Jerusalem

Another prominent cultural institution in Jerusalem is Yad Vashem, Israel's national memorial to the victims of the Holocaust. Yad Vashem houses the world's largest[124] library of Holocaust-related information, with an estimated 100,000 books and articles.[125] The complex contains a state-of-the-art museum that explores the genocide of the Jews through exhibits that focus on the personal stories of individuals and families whose lives were torn asunder, and a gallery displaying permanent and changing exhibits of work by artists who died in the Holocaust.[125] Another memorial at Yad Vashem commemorates the 1.5 million Jewish children who perished at the hands of the Nazis. Yad Vashem operates as both a research and educational institution.

The Jerusalem Theater at night
The Jerusalem Theater at night

One of the city's foremost orchestras is the Jerusalem Symphony Orchestra, which has been operating since the 1940s.[126] The Orchestra has held performances in cities around the world, including Vienna, Frankfurt, and New York City.[126] Within walking distance of the Old City is a cultural district which includes the Khan Theatre, the only repertoire theater in the city,[127] and the Jerusalem Cinematheque. The Jerusalem Theater, located in the Talbiya neighborhood, hosts over 150 concerts a year, as well as theater and dance companies and performing artists from overseas.[128] Other prominent facilities for the performing arts include the International Convention Center (Binyanei HaUma) near the entrance to city, where the Israel Philharmonic Orchestra plays, the Gerard Behar Center in downtown Jerusalem, the Jerusalem Music Center in Yemin Moshe,[129] and the Targ Music Center in Ein Kerem. The Palestinian National Theatre, founded in 1984 and once the only center for art and culture in East Jerusalem,[130] today presents art from the Palestinian perspective.[131] The Israel Festival,[132] featuring local and international vocal artists, concerts, plays and street theater, has been held annually since 1961. For the past 25 years, Jerusalem has been the major organizer of this event, which takes place in May-June, and most of the performances take place at venues around the city.[133]

[edit] Religious significance

Jerusalem plays an important role in the three monotheistic religionsJudaism, Christianity, and Islam. The 2000 Statistical Yearbook of Jerusalem lists 1204 synagogues, 158 churches, and 73 mosques within the city.[134] Despite efforts to maintain peaceful religious coexistence, some sites, such as the Temple Mount, have been a continuous source of friction and controversy.

The Western Wall and Dome of the Rock. The compound on which the Dome of the Rock sits is known to Jews as the Temple Mount, the holiest site in Judaism, and known to Muslims as the Haram al-Sharif, one of the three holiest sites in Islam.
The Western Wall and Dome of the Rock. The compound on which the Dome of the Rock sits is known to Jews as the Temple Mount, the holiest site in Judaism, and known to Muslims as the Haram al-Sharif, one of the three holiest sites in Islam.

Jerusalem has been sacred to the Jews since the 10th century BCE,[6] as the site of Solomon's Temple and the Second Temple. It is mentioned in the Bible 632 times. Today, the Western Wall, a remnant of the Second Temple, is a holy site for Jews, second only to the Temple Mount itself.[135] Synagogues around the world are traditionally built with the Holy Ark facing Jerusalem,[136] and Arks within Jerusalem face the "Holy of Holies".[137] As prescribed in the Mishna and codified in the Shulchan Aruch, daily prayers are recited while facing towards Jerusalem and the Temple Mount. Many Jews have "Mizrach" plaques hung on a wall of their homes to indicate the direction of prayer.[137][138]

The main entrance to the Church of the Holy Sepulchre
The main entrance to the Church of the Holy Sepulchre

Christianity reveres Jerusalem not only for its role in the Old Testament but also for its significance in the life of Jesus. According to Biblical accounts, Jesus was brought to the city of Jerusalem not long after his birth[139] and later in his life cleansed the Second Temple.[140] The Cenacle, believed to be the site of Jesus' Last Supper, is located on Mount Zion in the same building that houses the Tomb of King David.[141][142] Another prominent Christian site in Jerusalem is Golgotha, the site of the crucifixion. The Gospel of John describes it as being located outside Jerusalem,[143] but recent archaeological evidence suggests Golgotha is a short distance from the Old City walls, within the present-day confines of the city.[144] The land currently occupied by the Church of the Holy Sepulchre is considered one of the top candidates for Golgotha and thus has been a Christian pilgrimage site for the past two thousand years.[144][145][146]

Jerusalem is widely considered the third-holiest city in Islam.[7] For approximately a year, before it was permanently switched to the Kabaa in Mecca, the qibla (direction of prayer) for Muslims was Jerusalem.[147] The city's lasting place in Islam, however, is primarily due to Muhammad's Night of Ascension (c. 620 CE). Muslims believe Muhammad was miraculously transported one night from Mecca to the Temple Mount in Jerusalem, whereupon he ascended to Heaven to meet previous prophets of Islam.[148][149] The first verse in the Qur'an's Surat al-Isra notes the destination of Muhammad's journey as al-Aqsa (the farthest) mosque,[150] in reference to the location in Jerusalem. Today, the Temple Mount is topped by two Islamic landmarks intended to commemorate the event — al-Aqsa Mosque, derived from the name mentioned in the Qur'an, and the Dome of the Rock, which stands over the Foundation Stone, from which Muslims believe Muhammad ascended to Heaven.[151]

[edit] Sports

The two most popular sports in Jerusalem, and Israel as a whole, are football (soccer) and basketball.[152] Beitar Jerusalem Football Club is one of the most popular teams in Israel. Fans include several former and current political figures who make a point of attending its games.[153] Jerusalem's other major football team, and one of Beitar's top rivals, is Hapoel Jerusalem Football Club. Whereas Beitar has been Israel State Cup champion five times,[154] Hapoel has only won the Cup once. Also, Beitar plays in the more prestigious premier league, while Hapoel is in the third division national league.

In basketball, Hapoel Jerusalem is higher up on the scale. In a league dominated by Maccabi Tel Aviv it has yet to win a championship, but it has won the Israeli Cup three times, and it took the European ULEB Cup in 2004.[155] Since its opening in 1992, Teddy Kollek Stadium has been Jerusalem's primary football stadium, with a capacity of 21,000.[156]

[edit] Economy

Ben Yehuda Street on Shabbat, when businesses are closed
Ben Yehuda Street on Shabbat, when businesses are closed

Historically, Jerusalem's economy was supported almost exclusively by religious pilgrims, as it was located far from the major ports of Jaffa and Gaza.[157] Jerusalem's religious landmarks today remain the top draw for foreign visitors, with the majority of tourists visiting the Western Wall and the Old City,[3] but in the past half-century it has become increasingly clear that Jerusalem's providence cannot solely be sustained by its religious significance.[157]

Although many statistics indicate economic growth in the city, since 1967 East Jerusalem has lagged behind the development of West Jerusalem.[157] Nevertheless, the percentage of households with employed persons is higher for Arab households (76.1%) than for Jewish households (66.8%). The unemployment rate in Jerusalem (8.3%) is slightly better than the national average (9.0%), although the civilian labor force accounted for less than half of all persons fifteen years or older — lower in comparison to that of Tel Aviv (58.0%) and Haifa (52.4%).[3] Poverty in the city has increased dramatically in recent years; between 2001 and 2007, the number of people below the poverty threshold increased by forty percent.[158] In 2006, the average monthly income for a worker in Jerusalem was NIS5,940 (US$1,410), NIS1,350 less than that for a worker in Tel Aviv.[158]

During the British Mandate, a law was passed requiring all buildings to be constructed of Jerusalem stone in order to preserve the unique historic and aesthetic character of the city.[54] Complementing this building code, which is still in force, is the discouragement of heavy industry in Jerusalem; only about 2.2% of Jerusalem's land is zoned for "industry and infrastructure." By comparison, the percentage of land in Tel Aviv zoned for industry and infrastructure is twice as high, and in Haifa, seven times as high.[3] Only 8.5% of the Jerusalem District work force is employed in the manufacturing sector, which is half the national average (15.8%). Higher than average percentages are employed in education (17.9% vs. 12.7%); health and welfare (12.6% vs. 10.7%); community and social services (6.4% vs. 4.7%); hotels and restaurants (6.1% vs. 4.7%); and public administration (8.2% vs. 4.7%).[159] Although Tel Aviv remains Israel's financial center, a growing number of high tech companies are moving to Jerusalem, providing 12,000 jobs in 2006.[160] Northern Jerusalem's Har Hotzvim industrial park is home to some of Israel's major corporations, among them Intel, Teva Pharmaceutical Industries, and ECI Telecom. Expansion plans for the park envision one hundred businesses, a fire station, and a school, covering an area of 530,000 m² (130 acres).[161]

Since the establishment of the State of Israel, the national government has remained a major player in Jerusalem's economy. The government, centered in Jerusalem, not only generates a large number of jobs, but also offers subsidies and incentives for new business initiatives and start-ups.[157]

[edit] Transportation

Jerusalem's Central Bus Station
Jerusalem's Central Bus Station

The airport nearest to Jerusalem is Atarot Airport, which was used for domestic flights only until its closure in 2001. Since then it has been under the control of the Israel Defense Forces due to disturbances in Ramallah and the West Bank. All air traffic from Atarot was rerouted to Ben Gurion International Airport, Israel's largest and busiest airport, which serves nine million passengers annually.[162]

Egged Bus Cooperative, the second-largest bus company in the world,[163] handles most of the local and intercity bus service out of the city's Central Bus Station on Jaffa Road near the western entrance to Jerusalem from highway 1.

Israel Railways runs a limited rail service to Malha train station, from Tel Aviv via Beit Shemesh.[164][165]

Begin Expressway is one of Jerusalem's major north-south thoroughfares; it runs on the western side of the city until its northern end merges with Route 443, which continues toward Tel Aviv. Route 60 runs through the center of the city near the Green Line that, de facto, separates East Jerusalem from West Jerusalem. Construction is progressing on parts of a 35-kilometer (22-mile) ring road around the city, fostering faster connection between the suburbs.[166][167] The eastern half of the project was conceptualized decades ago, but reaction to the proposed highway is still mixed.[166]

As of 2007, Egged buses, taxicabs and private cars are the only transportation options in Jerusalem. However, this will change with the completion of the Jerusalem Light Rail, a new rail-based transit system currently under construction. A rail-based system was first envisioned in 1995; since then, a light rail system has been chosen over a subway or monorail design due to its cheaper cost, minimal disruption, and preservation of the city center's aesthetics.[168] The rail system will be capable of transporting an estimated 200,000 people daily. It will have twenty four stops, and is scheduled for completion in January 2009.[169]

Another work in progress[169] is the new high-speed rail line from Tel Aviv to Jerusalem, which is scheduled to be completed in 2011. Its terminus will be an underground station (80m deep) serving the national Convention centre and the Central Bus Station,[170] and is planned to be extended eventually to Malha station.

[edit] Education

Jerusalem is home to several prestigious universities, with courses offered in Hebrew, Arabic, and English. Founded in 1925, the Hebrew University of Jerusalem[171] is one of the most respected institutions of higher learning in Israel. The Board of Governors has included such prominent Jewish intellectuals as Albert Einstein and Sigmund Freud.[55] The university has produced several Nobel laureates; recent winners associated with Hebrew University include Avram Hershko,[172] David Gross,[173] and Daniel Kahneman.[174] One of the university's major assets is the Jewish National and University Library, which houses over five million books.[175] The library opened in 1892, over three decades before the university was established, and is one of the world's largest repositories of books on Jewish subjects. Today it is both the central library of the university and the national library of Israel.[176] The Hebrew University operates three campuses in Jerusalem, on Mount Scopus, on Giv'at Ram and a medical campus at the Hadassah Ein Kerem hospital.

Al-Quds University was established in 1984,[177] to serve as a flagship university for the Arab and Palestinian peoples. It describes itself as the "only Arab university in Jerusalem".[178] Al-Quds University resides southeast of the city proper on a campus encompassing 190,000 square metres (47 acres).[177] Other institutions of higher learning in Jerusalem are the Jerusalem Academy of Music and Dance[179] and Bezalel Academy of Art and Design,[180] whose buildings are located on the campuses of the Hebrew University.

The Jerusalem College of Technology, founded in 1969, combines training in engineering and other high-tech industries with a Jewish studies program.[181] It is one of many schools in Jerusalem, from elementary school and up, that combine secular and religious studies. Numerous religious educational institutions and Yeshivot are based in the city, with the Mir yeshiva claiming to be the largest.[182] There were nearly 8,000 twelfth-grade students in Hebrew-language schools during the 2003–2004 school year.[3] However, due to the large portion of students in Haredi Jewish frameworks, only fifty-five percent of twelfth graders took matriculation exams (Bagrut) and only thirty-seven percent were eligible to graduate. Unlike public schools, many Haredi schools do not prepare students to take standardized tests.[3] To attract more university students to Jerusalem, the city has begun to offer a special package of financial incentives and housing subsidies to students who rent apartments in downtown Jerusalem.[183]

Schools for Arabs in Jerusalem and other parts of Israel have been criticized for offering a lower quality education than those catering to Israeli Jewish students.[184] While many schools in the heavily Arab East Jerusalem are filled to capacity and there have been complaints of overcrowding, the Jerusalem Municipality is currently building over a dozen new schools in the city's Arab neighborhoods. Three schools, in the neighborhoods of Ras el-Amud and Umm Lison, will open in 2008.[185] In March 2007, the Israeli government approved a 5-year plan to build 8,000 new classrooms in the city, 40 percent in the Arab sector and 28 percent in the Haredi sector. A budget of 4.6 billion shekels was allocated for this project. [186] In 2008, Jewish British philanthropists donated $3 million for the construction of schools in Arab East Jerusalem.[187]Arab high school students take the Bagrut matriculation exams, so that much of their curriculum parallels that of other Israeli high schools and includes certain Jewish subjects.[184]

[edit] See also

[edit] Sister cities

[edit] Endnotes

i.   ^ The website for Jerusalem is available in three languages — Hebrew, English, and Arabic.
ii.   ^ Jerusalem in other languages: Arabic Bibles use أورشليم Ûrshalîm (Ûrushalîm); official Arabic in Israel: أورشليم القدس, Ûrshalîm-al-Quds (combining the Biblical and common usage Arabic names)
iii.   ^ Jerusalem is the capital under Israeli law. The presidential residence, government offices, supreme court and parliament (Knesset) are located there. The Palestinian Authority foresees East Jerusalem as the capital of its future state. The United Nations and most countries do not recognize Jerusalem as Israel's capital, taking the position that the final status of Jerusalem is pending future negotiations between Israel and the Palestinian Authority. Most countries maintain their embassies in Tel Aviv (see CIA Factbook and Map of IsraelPDF (319 KB)) See Positions on Jerusalem for more information.
iv.   ^ a b Much of the information regarding King David's conquest of Jerusalem comes from Biblical accounts, but modern-day historians have begun to give them credit due to a 1993 excavation.[190]
v.   ^ Statistics regarding the demographics of Jerusalem refer to the unified and expanded Israeli municipality, which includes the pre-1967 Israeli and Jordanian municipalities as well as several additional Palestinian villages and neighborhoods to the northeast. Some of the Palestinian villages and neighborhoods have been relinquished to the West Bank de facto by way of the Israeli West Bank barrier,[191] but their legal statuses have not been reverted.
vi.   ^ Sources disagree on the timing of the creation of the Pact of Umar (Omar). Whereas some say the Pact originated during Umar's lifetime but was later expanded,[192][193] others say the Pact was created after his death and retroactively attributed to him.[194] Further still, other historians believe the ideas in the Pact pre-date Islam and Umar entirely.[195]

[edit] References

  1. ^ a b 40th Anniversary of the Reunification of Jerusalem. Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs (2007-05-16). Retrieved on 2007-05-19.
  2. ^ Largest city:
  3. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Press Release: Jerusalem Day (PDF). Central Bureau of Statistics (2006-05-24). Retrieved on 2007-03-10.
  4. ^ Local Authorities in Israel 2005, Publication #1295 - Municipality Profiles - Jerusalem (PDF) (Hebrew). Israel Central Bureau of Statistics. Retrieved on 2007-12-07.
  5. ^ a b Timeline for the History of Jerusalem. Jewish Virtual Library. American-Israeli Cooperative Enterprise. Retrieved on 2007-04-16.
  6. ^ a b Since the 10th century BCE:[iv]
    • "Israel was first forged into a unified nation from Jerusalem some three thousand years ago, when King David seized the crown and united the twelve tribes from this city... For a thousand years Jerusalem was the seat of Jewish sovereignty, the household site of kings, the location of its legislative councils and courts. In exile, the Jewish nation came to be identified with the city that had been the site of its ancient capital. Jews, wherever they were, prayed for its restoration." Roger Friedland, Richard D. Hecht. To Rule Jerusalem, University of California Press, 2000, p. 8. ISBN 0520220927
    • "The Jewish bond to Jerusalem was never broken. For three millennia, Jerusalem has been the center of the Jewish faith, retaining its symbolic value throughout the generations." Jerusalem- the Holy City, Israeli Ministry of Foreign Affairs, February 23, 2003. Accessed March 24, 2007.
    • "The centrality of Jerusalem to Judaism is so strong that even secular Jews express their devotion and attachment to the city and cannot conceive of a modern State of Israel without it... For Jews Jerusalem is sacred simply because it exists... Though Jerusalem's sacred character goes back three millennia...". Leslie J. Hoppe. The Holy City: Jerusalem in the theology of the Old Testament, Liturgical Press, 2000, p. 6. ISBN 0814650813
    • "Ever since King David made Jerusalem the capital of Israel 3,000 years ago, the city has played a central role in Jewish existence." Mitchell Geoffrey Bard, The Complete Idiot's Guide to the Middle East Conflict, Alpha Books, 2002, p. 330. ISBN 0028644107
    • "For Jews the city has been the pre-eminent focus of their spiritual, cultural, and national life throughout three millennia." Yossi Feintuch, U.S. Policy on Jerusalem, Greenwood Publishing Group, 1987, p. 1. ISBN 0313257000
    • "Jerusalem became the center of the Jewish people some 3,000 years ago" Moshe Maoz, Sari Nusseibeh, Jerusalem: Points of Friction - And Beyond, Brill Academic Publishers, 2000, p. 1. ISBN 9041188436
    • "The Jewish people are inextricably bound to the city of Jerusalem. No other city has played such a dominant role in the history, politics, culture, religion, national life and consciousness of a people as has Jerusalem in the life of Jewry and Judaism. Since King David established the city as the capital of the Jewish state circa 1000 BCE, it has served as the symbol and most profound expression of the Jewish people's identity as a nation." Basic Facts you should know: Jerusalem, Anti-Defamation League, 2007. Accessed March 28, 2007.
  7. ^ a b Third-holiest city in Islam:
    • Esposito, John L. (2002-11-02). What Everyone Needs to Know about Islam. Oxford University Press, 157. ISBN 0195157133. “The Night Journey made Jerusalem the third holiest city in Islam” 
    • Brown, Leon Carl (2000-09-15). "Setting the Stage: Islam and Muslims", Religion and State: The Muslim Approach to Politics. Columbia University Press, 11. ISBN 0231120389. “The third holiest city of Islam—Jerusalem—is also very much in the center...” 
    • Hoppe, Leslie J. (August 2000). The Holy City: Jerusalem in the Theology of the Old Testament. Michael Glazier Books, 14. ISBN 0814650813. “Jerusalem has always enjoyed a prominent place in Islam. Jerusalem is often referred to as the third holiest city in Islam...” 
  8. ^ Kollek, Teddy (1977). "Afterword", in John Phillips: A Will to Survive - Israel: the Faces of the Terror 1948-the Faces of Hope Today. Dial Press/James Wade. “about 225 acres” 
  9. ^ List of UNESCO World Heritage Sites. The site of Jerusalem was nominated in 1981 by Jordan. Old City of Jerusalem and its Walls
  10. ^ Ben-Arieh, Yehoshua (1984). Jerusalem in the 19th Century, The Old City. Yad Izhak Ben Zvi & St. Martin's Press, 14. ISBN 0312441878. 
  11. ^ a b Segal, Jerome M. (Fall 1997). Negotiating Jerusalem. The University of Maryland School of Public Policy. Retrieved on 2007-02-25.
  12. ^ Møller, Bjørn (November 2002). "A Cooperative Structure for Israeli-Palestinian Relations" (PDF). Working Paper No. 1. . Centre for European Policy Studies Retrieved on 2007-04-16.
  13. ^ Bethune, George Washington (1845). The Fruit of the Spirit. Mentz & Rovoudt, 93. “is the New Jerusalem, or "heritage of peace."” 
  14. ^ Allen, Joseph Henry (1879). Hebrew Men and Times: From the Patriarchs to the Messiah. Roberts Brothers, 125. “name it Jerusalem, the "heritage of Peace."” 
  15. ^ Elon, Amos (1996-01-08). Jerusalem. HarperCollins Publishers Ltd. ISBN 0006375316. Retrieved on 2007-04-26. “The epithet may have originated in the ancient name of Jerusalem—Salem (after the pagan deity of the city), which is etymologically connected in the Semitic languages with the words for peace (shalom in Hebrew, salam in Arabic).” 
  16. ^ From the King James Version: "And Melchizedek king of Salem brought forth bread and wine: and he was the priest of the most high God." (Genesis 14:18)
  17. ^ Jerusalem, the Old City. al-Quds University. Retrieved on 2007-01-12.
  18. ^ a b Landau, Yehezkel (1996). "Sharing Jerusalem: The Spiritual And Political Challenges". Service International De Documéntation Judéo-Chrétienne 29 (2–3). “I will share another meta-midrash...believers in the One Supreme God.” 
  19. ^ Sitchin, Zecharia, The Cosmic Code, Avon 1998
  20. ^ Wallace, Edwin Sherman (August 1977). Jerusalem the Holy, 16. ISBN 0405102984. “A similar view was held by those who give the Hebrew dual to the word” 
  21. ^ Smith, George Adam (1907). Jerusalem: The Topography, Economics and History from the Earliest Times to A.D. 70. Hodder and Stoughton, 251. “The termination -aim or -ayim used to be taken as the ordinary termination of the dual of nouns, and was explained as signifying the upper and lower cities”  (see here)
  22. ^ a b c Freedman, David Noel (2000-01-01). Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bible. Wm B. Eerdmans Publishing, 694-695. ISBN 0802824005. 
  23. ^ Killebrew Ann E. "Biblical Jerusalem: An Archaeological Assessment" in Andrew G. Vaughn and Ann E. Killebrew, eds., "Jerusalem in Bible and Archaeology: The First Temple Period" (SBL Symposium Series 18; Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature, 2003)
  24. ^ Vaughn, Andrew G.; Ann E. Killebrew (2003-08-01). "Jerusalem at the Time of the United Monarchy", Jerusalem in Bible and Archaeology: the First Temple Period, 32–33. ISBN 1589830660. 
  25. ^ Shalem, Yisrael (1997-03-03). History of Jerusalem from Its Beginning to David. Jerusalem: Life Throughout the Ages in a Holy City. Bar-Ilan University Ingeborg Rennert Center for Jerusalem Studies. Retrieved on 2007-01-18.
  26. ^ Greenfeld, Howard (2005-03-29). A Promise Fulfilled: Theodor Herzl, Chaim Weizmann, David Ben-Gurion, and the Creation of the State of Israel. Greenwillow, 32. ISBN 006051504X. 
  27. ^ Timeline. City of David. Ir David Foundation. Retrieved on 2007-01-18.
  28. ^ a b Michael, E.; Sharon O. Rusten, Philip Comfort, and Walter A. Elwell (2005-02-28). The Complete Book of When and Where: In The Bible And Throughout History. Tyndale House Publishers, Inc., 20–1, 67. ISBN 0842355081. 
  29. ^ Merling, David (1993-08-26). Where is the Ark of the Covenant?. Andrew's University. Retrieved on 2007-01-22.
  30. ^ Zank, Michael. Capital of Judah I (930–722). Boston University. Retrieved on 2007-01-22.
  31. ^ a b Zank, Michael. Capital of Judah (930–586). Boston University. Retrieved on 2007-01-22.
  32. ^ Sicker, Martin (2001-01-30). Between Rome and Jerusalem: 300 Years of Roman-Judaean Relations. Praeger Publishers, 2. ISBN 0275971406. 
  33. ^ Zank, Michael. Center of the Persian Satrapy of Judah (539–323). Boston University. Retrieved on 2007-01-22.
  34. ^ Schiffman, Lawrence H. (1991). From Text to Tradition: A History of Second Temple and Rabbinic Judaism. Ktav Publishing House, 60–79. ISBN 0-88125-371-5. 
  35. ^ Har-el, Menashe. This Is Jerusalem. Canaan Publishing House. 
  36. ^ Zank, Michael. The Temple Mount. Boston University. Retrieved on 2007-01-22.
  37. ^ Crossan, John Dominic (1993-02-26). The Historical Jesus: the life of a Mediterranean Jewish peasant, Reprinted ed., San Francisco: HarperCollins, 92. ISBN 0060616296. “from 4 BCE until 6 CE, when Rome, after exiling [Herod Archelaus] to Gaul, assumed direct prefectural control of his territories” 
  38. ^ Lehmann, Clayton Miles. Palestine: People and Places. The On-line Encyclopedia of the Roman Provinces. The University of South Dakota. Retrieved on 2007-04-18.
  39. ^ a b Lehmann, Clayton Miles (2007-02-22). Palestine: History. The On-line Encyclopedia of the Roman Provinces. The University of South Dakota. Retrieved on 2007-04-18.
  40. ^ Cohen, Shaye J. D. (1996). "Judaism to Mishnah: 135–220 C.E", in Hershel Shanks: Christianity and Rabbinic Judaism: A Parallel History of their Origins and Early Development, 196. 
  41. ^ Har-el, Menashe. This Is Jerusalem. Canaan Publishing House. 
  42. ^ Zank, Michael. Byzantian Jerusalem. Boston University. Retrieved on 2007-02-01.
  43. ^ a b Conybeare, Frederick C. (1910). The Capture of Jerusalem by the Persians in 614 AD, English Historical Review 25, 502-517. 
  44. ^ Gil, Moshe (February 1997). A History of Palestine, 634-1099. Cambridge University Press, 70-71. ISBN 0521599849. 
  45. ^ Runciman, Steven (1951). A History of the Crusades:The First Crusade and the Foundation of the Kingdom of Jerusalem. Penguin Books, Vol.1 pp.3-4. 
  46. ^ Hoppe, Leslie J. (August 2000). The Holy City: Jerusalem in the Theology of the Old Testament. Michael Glazier Books, 15. ISBN 0814650813. 
  47. ^ Zank, Michael. Abbasid Period and Fatimid Rule (750–1099). Boston University. Retrieved on 2007-02-01.
  48. ^ Hull, Michael D. (June 1999). "First Crusade: Siege of Jerusalem". Military History. 
  49. ^ a b Main Events in the History of Jerusalem. Jerusalem: The Endless Crusade. The CenturyOne Foundation (2003). Retrieved on 2007-02-02.
  50. ^ Eylon, Lili (April 1999). Jerusalem: Architecture in the Late Ottoman Period. Focus on Israel. Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Retrieved on 2007-04-20.
  51. ^ Fromkin, David (2001-09-01). A Peace to End All Peace: The Fall of the Ottoman Empire and the Creation of the Modern Middle East, 2nd reprinted, Owl Books e, 312–3. ISBN 0805068848. 
  52. ^ Mendelsson, David. British Rule. Department for Jewish Zionist Education. The Jewish Agency for Israel. Retrieved on 2007-02-02.
  53. ^ Tamari, Salim (1999). "Jerusalem 1948: The Phantom City" (Reprint). Jerusalem Quarterly File (3). 
  54. ^ a b Eisenstadt, David (2002-08-26). The British Mandate. Jerusalem: Life Throughout the Ages in a Holy City. Bar-Ilan University Ingeborg Rennert Center for Jerusalem Studies. Retrieved on 2007-02-10.
  55. ^ a b History. The Hebrew University of Jerusalem. Retrieved on 2007-03-18.
  56. ^ Do We Divide the Holiest Holy City?. Moment Magazine. Retrieved on 2008-03-05.
  57. ^ Considerations Affecting Certain of the Provisions of the General Assembly Resolution on the "Future Government of Palestine": The City of Jerusalem. The United Nations (1948-01-22). Retrieved on 2007-02-03.
  58. ^ David Storobin. The Legal Status of East Jerusalem Under International Law. Global Politician.
  59. ^ Brewer, Sam Pope. "11 Day Fight Over", The New York Times, 1948-05-29. Retrieved on 2008-03-08. 
  60. ^ Krystall, Nathan.“The De-Arabization of West Jerusalem 1947-50”, Journal of Palestine Studies (27), Winter 1998
  61. ^ Morris Benny, The Birth of the Palestinian Refugee Problem, 1947-1949, Revisited , Cambridge, 2004
  62. ^ Al-Khalidi, Walid (ed.), All that remains: the Palestinian villages occupied and depopulated by Israel in 1948 , (Washington DC: 1992),"Lifta", pp. 300-303
  63. ^ Morris Benny, The Birth of the Palestinian Refugee Problem, 1947-1949, Revisited , Cambridge, 2004
  64. ^ Al-Khalidi, Walid (ed.), All that remains: the Palestinian villages occupied and depopulated by Israel in 1948 , (Washington DC: 1992)
  65. ^ By Martin Gilbert
  66. ^ Mitchell Bard. Myths & Facts Online: Jerusalem. Jewish Virtual Library.
  67. ^ a b Basic Law: Jerusalem, Capital of Israel. Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs (1980-07-30). Retrieved on 2007-04-02.
  68. ^ "No Mid-East advance at UN summit", BBC, 2000-09-07. Retrieved on 2007-02-03. 
  69. ^ Khaled Abu Toameh. "Abbas: Aim guns against occupation", The Jerusalem Post, 2007-01-11. Retrieved on 2007-02-03. 
  70. ^ United Nations Security Council Resolution 252. Jewish Virtual Library (1968-05-21). Retrieved on 2007-05-23.
  71. ^ Cabrera, Enrique; Jorge García-Serra (1998-12-31). Drought Management Planning in Water Supply Systems. Springer, 304. ISBN 0792352947. “The Old City of Jerusalem (760 m) in the central hills” 
  72. ^ a b Bergsohn, Sam (2006-05-15). Geography. Cornell University. Retrieved on 2007-02-09.
  73. ^ Walvoord, John; Zachary J. Hayes, Clark H. Pinnock, William Crockett, and Stanley N. Gundry (1996-01-07). "The Metaphorical View", Four Views on Hell. Zondervan, 58. ISBN 0310212685. 
  74. ^ Rosen-Zvi, Issachar (June 2004). Taking Space Seriously: Law, Space and Society in Contemporary Israel. Ashgate Publishing, 37. ISBN 0754623513. “Thus, for instance, the distance between the four large metropolitan regions are—39 miles” 
  75. ^ Federman, Josef. "Debate flares anew over Dead Sea Scrolls", AP via MSNBC, 2004-08-18. Retrieved on 2007-02-09. 
  76. ^ Introduction. The Tell es-Safi/Gath Archaeological Expedition. Bar Ilan University. Retrieved on 2007-04-24. (Image located here)
  77. ^ Map of Israel. Eye On Israel. Retrieved on 2007-04-25. (See map 9 for Jerusalem)
  78. ^ ""One more Obstacle to Peace" – A new Israeli Neighborhood on the lands of Jerusalem city", The Applied Research Institute -- Jerusalem, 2007-03-10. Retrieved on 2007-04-24.  (Image located here)
  79. ^ a b Monthly Averages for Jerusalem, Israel. The Weather Channel. Retrieved on 2007-02-07.
  80. ^ Monthly Averages for Jerusalem, Israel (English). The Weather Channel Interactive, Inc. Retrieved on May 23, 2007.
  81. ^ a b Ma'oz, Moshe; Sari Nusseibeh (March 2000). Jerusalem: Points of Friction-And Beyond. Brill Academic Publishers, 44-6. ISBN 9041188436. 
  82. ^ Rory Kess. "Worst ozone pollution in Beit Shemesh, Gush Etzion", The Jerusalem Post, September 16, 2007. Retrieved on 2007-10-23. 
  83. ^ The Independent on the Museum of Tolerance
  84. ^ Institute of Jerusalem Studies
  85. ^ Esther Zandberg, Architecture Critic for Haaretz, on the Museum of Tolerance
  86. ^ Hadassah on Museum of tolerance
  87. ^ Zandberg on lack of transparency
  88. ^ BBC on the Museum of tolerance]
  89. ^ http://www.mamila-alrov.co.il/English/Default.aspx
  90. ^ Yigal Bronner and Neve Gordon on Silwan
  91. ^ ARIJ & LRC on Silwan
  92. ^ Meron Rapaport on skeleton disappearance at Silwan
  93. ^ Haaretz on Rabbis for Human Rights arrest
  94. ^ The Times Online on tunnels around the Old City
  95. ^ "Jerusalem Municipality plans to demolish 88 homes in Silwan," Al Ayyam Newspaper on June 1, 2005
  96. ^ Foundation for Middle East Peace on Silwan settlement
  97. ^ Rabbis for Human Rights on Silwan
  98. ^ Population and Density per km² in Localities Numbering Above 5,000 Residents on 31 XII 2005 (PDF). Israel Central Bureau of Statistics (2006). Retrieved on 2007-04-11.
  99. ^ Sel, Neta. "Jerusalem: More tourists, fewer Jews", YNet, 2006-05-23. Retrieved on 2007-03-10. 
  100. ^ Hockstader, Lee. "Jewish Drop In Jerusalem Worries Israel", The Washington Post via Cornell University, 1998-08-16. Retrieved on 2007-03-10. 
  101. ^ Laub, Karin. "Jerusalem Barrier Causes Major Upheaval", The Associated Press via The Washington Post, 2006-12-02. Retrieved on 2007-03-10. 
  102. ^ a b Cidor, Peggy. "Corridors of Power: A tale of two councils", The Jerusalem Post, 2007-03-15. Retrieved on 2007-03-28. 
  103. ^ Coker, Margaret. "Jerusalem Becomes A Battleground Over Gay Rights Vs. Religious Beliefs", Cox Newspapers, 2006-11-11. Retrieved on 2007-03-28. 
  104. ^ Safra Square - City Hall. The Municipality of Jerusalem. Retrieved on 2007-04-24.
  105. ^ a b Ben-Gurion, David (1949-12-05). Statements of the Prime Minister David Ben-Gurion Regarding Moving the Capital of Israel to Jerusalem. The Knesset. Retrieved on 2007-04-02.
  106. ^ Jerusalem and Berlin Embassy Relocation Act of 1998. The Library of Congress (1998-06-25). Retrieved on 2007-02-12.
  107. ^ The Status of Jerusalem. Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs (1999-03-14). Retrieved on 2007-02-12.
  108. ^ a b Embassies and Consulates in Israel. Israel Science and Technology Homepage. Retrieved on 2007-05-03.
  109. ^ Kellerman, Aharon (January 1993). Society and Settlement: Jewish Land of Israel in the Twentieth Century. State University of New York Press, 140. ISBN 0791412954. “[Tel Aviv] also contains most embassies, given the nonrecognition by many countries of Jerusalem as the capital of Israel.” 
  110. ^ Jerusalem Embassy Act of 1995 (PDF). U.S. Government Printing Office (1995-11-08). Retrieved on 2007-02-15.
  111. ^ Statement on FY 2003 Foreign Relations Authorization Act. Retrieved on 2007-05-23.
  112. ^ English gateway to the Knesset website. Retrieved on 2007-05-18.
  113. ^ The State of Israel: The Judicial Authority. Retrieved on 2007-05-18.
  114. ^ Jerusalem as administrative capital of the British Mandate of Palestine:
    • Orfali, Jacob G. (March 1995). Everywhere You Go, People Are the Same. Ronin Publishing, 25. ISBN 0914171755. “In the year 1923, [Jerusalem] became the capital of the British Mandate in Palestine” 
    • Oren-Nordheim, Michael (September 2001). Jerusalem and Its Environs: Quarters, Neighborhoods, Villages, 1800–1948. Wayne State University Press, 36. ISBN 0814329098. “The three decades of British rule in Palestine (1917/18–1948) were a highly significant phase in the development, with indelible effects on the urban planning and development of the capital – Jerusalem.”  Ruth Kark is a professor in the Department of Geography at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem.
    • Dumper, Michael (1996-04-15). The Politics of Jerusalem Since 1967. Columbia University Press, 59. ISBN 0231106408. “...the city that was to become the administrative capital of Mandate Palestine...” 
  115. ^ Klein, Menachem (March 2001). "The PLO and the Palestinian Identity of East Jerusalem", Jerusalem: The Future of a Contested City. New York University Press, 189. ISBN 081474754X. 
  116. ^ Richard Boudreaux. "Clashing values alter a city's face", Los Angeles Times, June 5, 2007. 
  117. ^ Ken Ellingwood. "Change cast in concrete", Los Angeles Times, June 4, 2007. 
  118. ^ Ken Ellingwood. "Change cast in concrete", Los Angeles Times, June 4, 2007. 
  119. ^ a b About the Museum. The Israel Museum, Jerusalem. Retrieved on 2007-02-27.
  120. ^ Shrine of the Book. The Israel Museum, Jerusalem. Retrieved on 2007-02-27.
  121. ^ The Rockefeller Archaeological Museum. The Israel Museum, Jerusalem. Retrieved on 2007-02-28.
  122. ^ The Rockefeller Archaeological Museum: About the Museum: The Permanent Exhibition. The Israel Museum, Jerusalem. Retrieved on 2007-02-28.
  123. ^ Ticho House. The Israel Museum, Jerusalem. Retrieved on 2007-02-28.
  124. ^ Yad Vashem. The Holocaust Martyrs' and Heroes' Remembrance Authority. Retrieved on 2007-02-28.
  125. ^ a b About Yad Vashem. The Holocaust Martyrs' and Heroes' Remembrance Authority. Retrieved on 2007-02-28.
  126. ^ a b History. Jerusalem Orchestra. Retrieved on 2007-03-04.
  127. ^ About Us. The Khan Theatre (2004). Retrieved on 2007-03-04.
  128. ^ The Jerusalem Centre for the Performing Arts. Jerusalem Theater. Retrieved on 2007-03-04.
  129. ^ Jerusalem Music Center. Retrieved on 2007-05-18.
  130. ^ History. Palestinian National Theatre. Retrieved on 2007-03-04.
  131. ^ Mission. Palestinian National Theatre. Retrieved on 2007-03-04.
  132. ^ Israel Festival: Jerusalem 2007. Retrieved on 2007-05-18.
  133. ^ About. Israel Festival. Retrieved on 2007-04-24. The necessary information could be found by clicking the "About" link on the homepage that appears.
  134. ^ Guinn, David E. (2006-10-02). Protecting Jerusalem's Holy Sites: A Strategy for Negotiating a Sacred Peace, 1st ed., Cambridge University Press, 142. ISBN 0521866626. 
  135. ^ What is the Western Wall?. The Kotel. Retrieved on 2007-03-06.
  136. ^ Goldberg, Monique Susskind. Synagogues. Ask the Rabbi. Schechter Institute of Jewish Studies. Retrieved on 2007-03-10.
  137. ^ a b Segal, Benjamin J. (1987). Returning: The Land of Israel as Focus in Jewish History. Jerusalem, Israel: Department of Education and Culture of the World Zionist Organization, 124. Retrieved on 2007-03-10. 
  138. ^ The Jewish injunction to pray toward Jerusalem comes in the Orach Chayim section of Shulchan Aruch (94:1) — "When one rises to pray anywhere in the Diaspora, he should face towards the Land of Israel, directing himself also toward Jerusalem, the Temple, and the Holy of Holies."
  139. ^ From the King James Version of the Bible: "And when the days of her purification according to the law of Moses were accomplished, they brought [Jesus] to Jerusalem, to present him to the Lord;" (Luke 2:22)
  140. ^ From the King James Version of the Bible: "And they come to Jerusalem: and Jesus went into the temple, and began to cast out them that sold and bought in the temple, and overthrew the tables of the moneychangers, and the seats of them that sold doves;" (Mark 11:15)
  141. ^ Boas, Adrian J. (2001-10-12). "Physical Remains of Crusader Jerusalem", Jerusalem in the Time of the Crusades. Routledge, 112. ISBN 0415230004. “The interesting, if not reliable illustrations of the church on the round maps of Jerusalem show two distinct buildings on Mount Zion: the church of St Mary and the Cenacle (Chapel of the Last Supper) appear as separate buildings.” 
  142. ^ Endo, Shusaku (1999). in Richard A. Schuchert: A Life of Jesus. Paulist Press, 116. ISBN 0809123193. 
  143. ^ From the King James Version of the Bible: "This title then read many of the Jews: for the place where Jesus was crucified was nigh to the city: and it was written in Hebrew, and Greek, and Latin." (John 19:20)
  144. ^ a b Stump, Keith W. (1993). Where Was Golgotha?. Worldwide Church of God. Retrieved on 2007-03-11.
  145. ^ Ray, Stephen K. (October 2002). St. John's Gospel: A Bible Study Guide and Commentary for Individuals and Groups, 340. ISBN 0898708214. 
  146. ^ O'Reilly, Sean (2000-11-30). Pilgrimage: Adventures of the Spirit, 1st ed., Travelers' Tales, 14. ISBN 1885211562. “The general consensus is that the Church of the Holy Sepulchre marks the hill called Golgotha, and that the site of the Crucifixion and the last five Stations of the Cross are located under its large black domes.” 
  147. ^ Cordesman, Anthony H. (2005-10-30). "The Final Settlement Issues: Asymmetric Values & Asymmetric Warfare", The Israeli-Palestinian War: Escalating to Nowhere. Praeger Security International, 62. ISBN 0275987582. 
  148. ^ Peters, Francis E. (2003-10-20). "Muhammad the Prophet of God", The Monotheists: The Peoples of God. Princeton University Press, 95-6. ISBN 0691114609. 
  149. ^ Sahih Bukhari. Compendium of Muslim Texts. University of Southern California. Retrieved on 2007-03-11. (from an English translation of Sahih Bukhari, Volume IX, Book 93, Number 608)
  150. ^ From Abdullah Yusuf Ali's English translation of the Qur'an: "Glory to (Allah) Who did take His servant for a Journey by night from the Sacred Mosque to the farthest Mosque, whose precincts We did bless,- in order that We might show him some of Our Signs: for He is the One Who heareth and seeth (all things)." (17:1)
  151. ^ The Early Arab Period - 638-1099. Jerusalem: Life Throughout the Ages in a Holy City. Bar-Ilan University Ingeborg Rennert Center for Jerusalem Studies (March 1997). Retrieved on 2007-04-24.
  152. ^ Torstrick, Rebecca L. (2004-06-30). Culture and Customs of Israel. Greenwood Press, 141. ISBN 0313320918. “The two most popular spectator sports in Israel are soccer (Israeli football) and basketball.” 
  153. ^ Griver, Simon. "Betar Jerusalem: A Local Sports Legend Exports Talent to Europe's Top Leagues", Israel Magazine via the Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Retrieved on 2007-03-07. 
  154. ^ (Hebrew) Home. Beitar Jerusalem F.C.. Retrieved on 2007-03-07. (The listing of championship wins are located on the left side.)
  155. ^ (Hebrew) Home. Hapoel Migdal Jerusalem. Retrieved on 2007-03-07. (The listing of championship wins are located at the bottom after the completion of the Flash intro.)
  156. ^ Eldar, Yishai (2001-12-01). Jerusalem: Architecture Since 1948. Israeli Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Retrieved on 2007-03-07.
  157. ^ a b c d Dumper, Michael (1996-04-15). The Politics of Jerusalem Since 1967. Columbia University Press, 207–10. ISBN 0231106408. 
  158. ^ a b "Study shows poverty level in Jerusalem double that of other Israeli cities", Israel Insider, 2007-01-11. Retrieved on 2007-03-11. 
  159. ^ Employed Persons, by Industry, District and Sub-District of Residence, 2005 (PDF). Israeli Central Bureau of Statistics. Retrieved on 2007-04-11.
  160. ^ Gil Zohar. "Bet your bottom dollar?", The Jerusalem Post, June 28, 2007. Retrieved on 2007-07-10. 
  161. ^ Har Hotzvim Industrial Park. Har Hotzvim Industrial Park. Retrieved on 2007-03-13.
  162. ^ Smith, Patrick. "Ask the Pilot", Salon, 2006-06-09. Retrieved on 2007-03-14. 
  163. ^ Solomon, Shoshanna. "Facets of the Israeli Economy – Transportation", Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 2001-11-01. Retrieved on 2007-03-14. 
  164. ^ Jerusalem - Malha. Israel Railways. Retrieved on 2007-03-14.
  165. ^ Passenger Lines Map. Israel Railways. Retrieved on 2007-03-14.
  166. ^ a b Burstein, Nathan. "Running rings around us", The Jerusalem Post, 2006-01-19. Retrieved on 2007-03-17. 
  167. ^ Gil Zohar. "Their way or the highway?", The Jerusalem Post, May 31, 2007. Retrieved on 2007-06-11. 
  168. ^ Solution. Jerusalem Mass Transit System Project. Retrieved on 2007-03-17.
  169. ^ a b Afra, Orit. "Panacea or pain?", The Jerusalem Post, 2007-02-08. Retrieved on 2007-03-17. 
  170. ^ Life in Jerusalem – Transportation. Rothberg International Station – Hebrew University of Jerusalem. Retrieved on 2007-03-14.
  171. ^ Official site of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem: (Hebrew), (Hebrew)
  172. ^ Hershko, Avram. Avram Hershko. The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved on 2007-03-18.
  173. ^ Gross, David. David J. Gross. The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved on 2007-03-18.
  174. ^ Kahneman, Daniel. Daniel Kahneman. The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved on 2007-03-18.
  175. ^ About the Library: Main Collections. Jewish National and University Library. Retrieved on 2007-03-27.
  176. ^ About the Library: History and Aims. Jewish National and University Library. Retrieved on 2007-03-27.
  177. ^ a b Science & Technology. al-Quds University. Retrieved on 2007-03-19.
  178. ^ Urgent Appeal. al-Quds University. Retrieved on 2007-03-27.
  179. ^ Official site of the Jerusalem Academy of Music and Dance: (Hebrew), (English)
  180. ^ Official site of Bezalel Academy of Art and Design: (Hebrew), (English)
  181. ^ About JCT. Jerusalem College of Technology. Retrieved on 2007-03-25.
  182. ^ Wohlgelernter, Elli (2000-12-28). The village of Mir, where Torah once flowed. Jewish Agency for Israel. Retrieved on 2007-03-26.
  183. ^ Jonathan Lis. "The best medicine for Jerusalem", May 4, 2005. 
  184. ^ a b Summary. Second Class Discrimination Against Palestinian Arab Children in Israel's Schools. Human Rights Watch (September 2001). Retrieved on 2007-03-27.
  185. ^ Mayor to raise funds for E. J'lem Arabs http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/976126.html
  186. ^ Or Kashti. "8,000 new classrooms to be built in Arab, ultra-Orthodox schools", March 18, 2007. 
  187. ^ http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/976126.html
  188. ^ Online Directory: Israel, Middle East. Sister Cities International. Retrieved on 2007-04-05.
  189. ^ New York City Global Partners. NYC.gov. Retrieved on 2008-02-17.
  190. ^ Pellegrino, Charles R. (1995-12-01). Return to Sodom & Gomorrah, Second revised, Harper Paperbacks, 271. ISBN 0380726335. “[see footnote]” 
  191. ^ Laub, Karin. "Jerusalem Barrier Causes Major Upheaval", The Associated Press via The Washington Post, 2006-12-02. Retrieved on 2007-03-10. 
  192. ^ Marcus, Jacob Rader (March 2000). The Jew in the Medieval World: A Source Book, 315–1791, Revised ed., Hebrew Union College Press, 13–15. ISBN 087820217X. Retrieved on 2007-02-01. 
  193. ^ Jonsson, David J. (2005-02-19). The Clash of Ideologies. Xulon Press, 256. ISBN 1597810398. “During the reign of Umar, the Pact of Umar was established.” 
  194. ^ Goddard, Hugh (2001-04-25). A History of Christian-Muslim Relations. New Amsterdam Books, 46. ISBN 1566633400. “Although the documents are attributed to `Umar, in all probability they actually come from the second Islamic century... The covenant was drawn up in the schools of law, and came to be ascribed, like so much else, to `Umar I” 
  195. ^ Goddard, Hugh (2001-04-25). A History of Christian-Muslim Relations. New Amsterdam Books, 47. ISBN 1566633400. “It has recently been suggested that many of the detailed regulations concerning what the ahl al-dhimma were and were not permitted to do come from an earlier historical precedent, namely the regulations which existed in the Sassanian Persian Empire with reference to its religious minorities in Iraq.” 

[edit] Other resources

Panoramic view on the Western Wall and Dome of the Rock
Panoramic view on the Western Wall and Dome of the Rock
  • Cheshin, Amir S.; Bill Hutman and Avi Melamed (1999). Separate and Unequal: the Inside Story of Israeli Rule in East Jerusalem Harvard University Press
  • Cline, Eric (2004) Jerusalem Besieged: From Ancient Canaan to Modern Israel. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press ISBN 0-472-11313-5.
  • Collins, Larry, and La Pierre, Dominique (1988). O Jerusalem! Simon and Shuster, N.Y. ISBN 0-671-66241-4
  • Gold, Dore (2007) The Fight for Jerusalem: Radical Islam, The West, and the Future of the Holy City Regnery Publishing, Inc. ISBN 978-1-59698-029-7
  • Köchler, Hans (1981) The Legal Aspects of the Palestine Problem with Special Regard to the Question of Jerusalem Vienna: Braumüller ISBN 3-7003-0278-9
  • The Holy Cities: Jerusalem produced by Danae Film Production, distributed by HDH Communications; 2006
  • Wasserstein, Bernard (2002) Divided Jerusalem: The Struggle for the Holy City New Haven and London: Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-09730-1

[edit] External links

Find more about Jerusalem on Wikipedia's sister projects:
Dictionary definitions
Textbooks
Quotations
Source texts
Images and media
News stories
Learning resources

Government

Culture

Education

[edit] Maps

[edit] Media

Coordinates: 31°47′N, 35°13′E