Jehovah's Witnesses

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Jehovah's Witnesses
Watchtower Buildings in Brooklyn, New York
Classification	Restorationist
Polity	Hierarchical
Founder	Charles Taze Russell (founded Bible Student movement)
Origin	1876 - Bible Students founded 1931 - Adopted name Pennsylvania and New York, USA
Branched from	Millerite and Adventist movements
Separations	See Jehovah's Witnesses splinter groups
Geographical Area	Worldwide
Statistics
Congregations	101,376
Members	7 million
Statistics from 2008 Yearbook of Jehovah's Witnesses

Jehovah's Witnesses are members of a restorationist^[1][2] religious denomination of the same name. The religion emerged from the Bible Student Movement, founded in the late 19th century by Charles Taze Russell. The name, "Jehovah's Witnesses", based on Isaiah 43:10, was adopted at a 1931 convention of Bible students while under the leadership of Joseph Franklin Rutherford. Identification of the religion as Christian, among other controversies, is debated largely owing to their disputing the Trinity, which most Christian religions regard as a fundamental doctrine. They believe God (Jehovah) is the creator, and Jesus (His son) is separate and not equal.

Contents 1 Beliefs 1.1 Jehovah 1.2 Jesus 1.3 Salvation 1.4 Authority of the Bible 1.5 Ethics and morality 1.6 Avoidance of Interfaith Activity 1.7 Relationship with governments 1.8 Proselytization 1.9 Aid work 1.10 The Memorial 1.11 Education 1.12 Congregational discipline 1.13 Blood 2 History 2.1 Russell and Barbour 2.2 Russell's break with Barbour 2.3 Presidency of Joseph Franklin Rutherford 2.4 Nathan Knorr, reorganization, and subsequent Presidents 3 Demographics 4 Organizational structure 5 Publications 6 Controversy 7 See also 8 References 9 Further reading 9.1 Books 10 External links 10.1 Official sites 10.2 Other sites

[edit] Beliefs

Main article: Beliefs and practices of Jehovah's Witnesses

[edit] Jehovah

Jehovah's Witnesses believe that, according to the Bible, God has a personal name, the Tetragrammaton, which is traditionally rendered in English Jehovah (Psalm 83:18). They view the use of the name as essential for true worship, since it makes God more personal and, according to its meaning in Hebrew, it inspires solid faith in the fulfillment of His promises. The name Jehovah is mentioned over 7,000 times in the scriptures (or Bible). Jehovah is regarded as Almighty God, the supreme being and creator of everything, the sovereign of the universe. They believe that Jehovah's main qualities are love, justice, wisdom, and power, and that these qualities are consistently demonstrated throughout the Bible.

[edit] Jesus

Jehovah's Witnesses believe that Jesus is the only-begotten Son of Jehovah. They believe that Jehovah and Jesus Christ are separate beings, and that the Holy Spirit is Jehovah's active force. Christ is regarded as the only means by which to approach Jehovah in prayer, and the means of salvation.^[3] They believe that Jesus is the head of the Christian Congregation. They believe that Jesus is also the archangel, Michael, as well as Abaddon/Appolyon from the book of Revelation.

[edit] Salvation

See also: Soteriology

Jehovah's Witnesses believe that Jesus' death was necessary to atone for the sin brought into the world by the first man, Adam, opening the way for the hope of everlasting life for mankind, and that 144,000 anointed Christians will receive immortal life in heaven as co-rulers with Christ, ruling over the rest of mankind during the Millennial Reign. Witnesses believe that during the imminent war of Armageddon, the wicked will be destroyed, and survivors, along with millions of others who will be resurrected, will form a new earthly society ruled by a heavenly government and have the possibility of living forever in an earthly paradise.

The vast majority of Jehovah's Witnesses expect to live on a renewed paradise on Earth.^[4] The Holy Spirit is not a person but is God's active force.^[5] The soul is the person itself, not an immortal immaterial entity that dwells inside the body.^[6] Thus, souls of deceased persons are considered dead, and death itself is a state of non-existence with no consciousness.^[7] Hades or Sheol is the designated common grave of all mankind. They do not believe in any Hell of fiery torment.^[8][9] Jehovah's Witnesses believe that October of 1914 marks the return, or "presence", of Christ as king of God's kingdom, which is understood to have occurred invisibly in heaven. They believe that his first act as king was to throw Satan out of heaven. In 1918, those of the 144,000 who had died are believed to have been resurrected as spirit creatures to heavenly life. Since then, any remaining members of the 144,000 who die are believed to be immediately resurrected to heavenly life, based on their understanding of 1 Corinthians 15:51, 52. Armageddon is considered to be imminent.^[10] After false religion is destroyed, governments also face destruction.^[11] Publications of Jehovah's Witnesses have stated that only those serving Jehovah will survive God's judgment of the world.^[12] They also teach that it is up to Jesus, and not people, to judge individuals.^[13] Regarding the fate of some, such as small children or the mentally ill, the Witnesses say "we may not know how Jehovah will resolve these issues. He will do so, however, in a righteous and merciful way." ^[14][15] After Armageddon, the majority of mankind who have died, both righteous and unrighteous, will be resurrected, with the chance of being judged righteous and living forever in paradise.^[16][17]

[edit] Authority of the Bible

Jehovah's Witnesses consider the entire Biblical canon, excluding the Apocrypha, to be the inspired word of God. They prefer their own translation of the Bible, the New World Translation, first published in 1950 by Watchtower Bible and Tract Society. ^[18]While they interpret some scriptures literally,^[19] they believe that Biblical writers and characters often employed symbolism, parable, figures of speech, and poeticism.^[20] Thus, they insist that they are not 'fundamentalists,' who they feel are in error in taking a strictly literal view of the Bible.^[21][22][23] They hold that the Bible alone should be used for determining issues of doctrine. Interpretation of scripture and codification of doctrines is considered the responsibility of the Governing Body of Jehovah's Witnesses.^[24]

[edit] Ethics and morality

Their view of morality reflects some of the usual conservative Christian views. Bestiality, homosexuality, incest, fornication and adultery are considered serious sins. ^[25] Abortion is considered murder.^[26] They are instructed to marry only within their religion. Modesty in dress and grooming is frequently emphasised. Gambling is strictly forbidden,^[27] as are stealing and drunkenness. The family structure is patriarchal. The husband is considered the final authority on family decisions, but is encouraged to solicit his wife's thoughts and feelings, as well as those of his children. Marriages are required to be monogamous.^[28] Divorce is condemned for any reason other than adultery. Abuse is considered grounds for separation. Blood should not be taken into the body from any source. As such they abstain from eating blood and from blood transfusions.

[edit] Avoidance of Interfaith Activity

The Witness contend that the Bible has always condemned the mixing of religions because there can only be one truth from God.^[29][30] They believe only their religion represents true Christianity. They believe that all other religions fail to meet all the requirements set by God and will be done away with. ^[31] Weddings, anniversaries, and funerals are typically observed; however, common celebrations or national holidays such as birthdays (based on the biblical account of Pharaoh at Genesis 40:20-22 and the biblical account of King Herod at Matthew 14:6-10), Halloween, Easter, and Christmas are regarded as pagan holidays owing to their origins and are not celebrated.^[32] The Witnesses are opposed to 'councils' that unite or combine different religions. ^[33]

[edit] Relationship with governments

Jehovah's Witnesses believe their allegiance belongs to God's Kingdom, which is viewed as an actual government. Thus they refrain from saluting the flag of any country or singing nationalistic songs.^{[34] [35]} They believe that these acts are tantamount to worship. The political neutrality of Jehovah's Witnesses is also expressed by their refusal to participate in military service - even when it is compulsory - and by their detachment from secular politics. Voting in political elections is considered a compromise of their Christian neutrality.

Still, members are expected to obey all laws of their native governments, so long as these do not violate what they view as God's law.^[36][37] They are instructed to pay all taxes of the country in which they reside, considering the government to be solely responsible for how they are used.^[38][39]

[edit] Proselytization

Witnesses are perhaps best known for the efforts to spread their beliefs throughout the world. They do this mainly by visiting people house to house.^[40][41] Free home Bible studies are offered to persons having questions or interest in their beliefs. They use Watchtower publications to explain their beliefs. Literature is published in many languages through a wide variety of books, magazines and other publications, with some publications being available in as many as 410 languages. Witnesses are instructed to devote as much time as possible in preaching activities.

They believe that their preaching work is a form of humanitarian effort by helping people apply Biblical principles to improve their lives, and that their preaching work gives people hope for the future.^[42][43][44] Members are required to participate in the preaching work and if possible to give a voluntary donation to the Watchtower Society's "Worldwide Work" fund.^[45] (An umbrella fund used to support the various aspects of their work.)^[46]

[edit] Aid work

Aid work after large natural disasters is considered an important part of their work, though secondary to their preaching effort. Large sums of donated money are used in the affected areas to rebuild communities and provide aid. The focus of relief efforts is primarily on helping fellow members and rebuilding Kingdom Halls, but usually, assistance is provided to non-members in need near the area in which they are working.^[47][48] Examples of relief work include that provided to Hutu and Tutsi victims rebuilding (Kingdom halls) during the Rwandan genocide, as well as to Congo refugees.^[49] Witnesses have also had an active share in the relief work and rebuilding Kingdom Halls after Hurricane Katrina in the United States of America.^[50]

[edit] The Memorial

See also: Beliefs and practices of Jehovah's Witnesses#Memorial of Christ's death

Their most important annual event is the commemoration of Jesus' death (referred to as "the Memorial") held after sundown, on the date corresponding to the date of the Hebrew Passover, Nisan 14 on the Hebrew calendar (usually in March or April).^[51] Typically, in most congregations, no one partakes in drinking the wine or eating the bread during this annual event, because only the members of the 144,000 or "The Anointed" partake of the emblems of the wine and unleavened bread. Instead most Jehovah's Witnesses pass the wine and the bread around the congregation. Citing the words at 1Corinthians 11:27, they believe that those who partake unworthily in the emblems will be judged by Jehovah. According to witness publications, as of 2008, about 9,000+ persons - an increase from the previous year - did partake of the emblems. These anointed ones anticipate being resurrected to heaven after their death. Anyone is invited to view this event, invitations are handed out about one month before the event. Almost all Witnesses today believe their future hope is to live after Armageddon, on a paradise earth which will be governed by Jesus and his heavenly government.

[edit] Education

Higher education (equivalent to bachelor's degree or higher) is not a focus for most Witness youth. ^[52] Jehovah's Witnesses are instructed to make spiritual matters the top priority in their life since the Witnesses view time as short for their global ministry. Higher education is considered a matter of conscience to be decided individually. If chosen it should be kept secondary to spiritual responsibilities. ^[53] The Witnesses cite Jesus' training as a carpenter as a practical example of secular training that doesn't overshadow service to God. The point of this analogy is that secondary education should ideally provide specialized skills to care for one's personal needs rather than to pursue status or prestige.^[54] Members are instructed to carefully consider what Witnesses perceive as a difficult balance between spiritual requirements and the costs in terms of time and financial resources. Parents are instructed to emphasize religious goals for their children while ensuring that they can provide for their own needs financially.^{[55][56] [57]} Another concern is that college may expose youths to numerous associations and activities viewed as harmful. Members are directed to ask themselves questions, such as, "How might being immersed in an atmosphere of intense competition and selfish materialism affect you?"^[58] A similar question cites a study stating that in some universities "Drugs and alcohol are used freely, and promiscuity is the rule" and asks "might living there thwart your efforts to remain morally clean?"^[59] But if they must attend a university, they are instructed to keep themselves "spiritually strong". Young Witnesses are reminded that "some youths who have been obliged to attend university have even managed to be pioneers (full time Witness ministers) by choosing a schedule of courses that made that possible."^[60][61][62]

Jehovah's Witnesses provide various education programmes for their members. Some examples are the Theocratic Ministry School, Pioneer Service School, Ministerial Training School, Gilead School and others, specifically focussed on improving skills for their ministry.

[edit] Congregational discipline

Main article: Jehovah's Witnesses and congregational discipline

Jehovah's Witnesses employ various levels of congregational discipline administered by elders in the congregation. These include:^[63][64][65]

Disfellowshipping is the most severe form of discipline. Congregation members, including family members, avoid social and/or spiritual association with disfellowshipped individuals.^[66] Disfellowshipped members can attend Kingdom Hall meetings, but are not allowed to take an active part in meetings or the ministry.^[67] Each year, the elders make an attempt to remind disfellowshipped ones of the steps they can take to qualify for reinstatement.

Reproof involves sins for which one could be disfellowshipped. But if “true repentance” is shown, the person may not be disfellowshipped, but merely reproved.^[68] Reproof may be given before all who have knowledge of the transgression.^[69] In some cases it is deemed necessary to make an announcement to the congregation that "(so and so) has been reproved."^[70]

Marking is employed when a member persists in conduct that is considered a clear violation of Scriptural principles, yet not of a sufficient seriousness to warrant disfellowshipping (shunning). Marking is based on their understanding of 2 Thessalonians 3:6. It is used only if the person repeatedly refuses counsel^[71] and the elders feel that not addressing it would pose a "spiritual danger" to the members of the congregation. A talk may be given regarding the conduct (without naming the individual).^[72] Though such a person would not be shunned, social interaction outside of formal worship settings would be minimized.^[73]

Regarding child abuse, unless a confession is made, the religion will take judicial action only on cases where there have been two witnesses, based on the principle at Deuteronomy 19:15 - "No single witness should rise up against a man ... At the mouth of two ... or ... three witnesses the matter should stand good". However, the elders are expected to report the allegation to the branch office of Jehovah's Witnesses ... if local privacy laws permit. They also comply with laws requiring even uncorroborated or unsubstantiated allegations to be reported to the authorities. Additionally, the victim may wish to report the matter to the authorities, and it is his or her absolute right to do so."^[74][75] In 1997 it was also stated that, "for the protection of our children, a man known to have been a child molester does not qualify for a responsible position in the congregation"^[76] Announcements to the congregation would follow organization policy regarding 'serious sins'.^[77] Disfellowshipped Witnesses can be reinstated if they are deemed by the elders to show true repentance, including consistent meeting attendance while being shunned. After a period of time, usually several months or longer, of behaviour considered acceptable the individual may inform the elders in writing of his desire to be reinstated.^[78] The Judicial Committee then arranges to meet with the individual to determine eligibility for reinstatement.^[79] If they choose to reinstate the individual, an announcement of reinstatement is made at the Service meeting.

[edit] Blood

Main article: Jehovah's Witnesses and blood

The official teaching of Jehovah's Witnesses regards blood as sacred and rejects allogeneic and stored^[80] autologous transfusions of whole blood, red cells, white cells, platelets or plasma.^[81] This is based on an understanding of the Biblical admonition to " abstain from ... blood," based on Acts 15:28, 29, and also on Leviticus 17:11,12, "For the life of the flesh is in the blood ... No soul of you shall eat blood," and of Genesis 9:3, 4, which they understand to be the first instance of "the Bible’s clear prohibition against taking blood into the body."^[82]

Their belief is that "collecting, storing, and transfusing of blood directly contradicts what is said in Leviticus and Deuteronomy," (that blood should be "poured out"). Their position is they do not "store for transfusion our blood that should be ‘poured out."^[83] Beyond what is stated in Watchtower literature, it is considered a personal decision regarding how a member's "own blood will be handled in the course of a surgical procedure, medical test, or current therapy."^[84] While Witnesses may not accept red cells, white cells, platelets or plasma, they may choose to accept fractions made from these components.^[85][86] If a fraction, "makes up a significant portion of that component" or "carries out the key function of a primary component" it may be objectionable to some but is permissible.^[87]

Witness publications have acknowledged that abiding by this doctrine has led to deaths due to blood loss, but there are no published statistics on total deaths.^[88] Witnesses also cite various health risks associated with blood transfusions, including HIV, hepatitis, and other blood-borne diseases, sometimes resulting in death.^[89] However, they indicate that such medical risks are secondary to their religious reasons for refusing blood.

Ethical concerns of medical and legal persons involved in managing blood crisis situations in pediatric cases has sometimes led to transfusions being administered to children against family wishes.^[90] Some medical ethicists contend that "serious ethical violations are currently used to enforce the blood policy" among Jehovah's Witnesses, including the suppression of dissident views within the religion.^[91] Witness leaders have defended these policies as obedience to scripture and religious conscience.^[92]

A growing number of hospitals are offering bloodless techniques in medicine and surgery.^[93] A number of medical professionals have credited Jehovah's Witnesses and their related organizations for their contribution to the dissemination of information regarding bloodless surgery techniques.^[94][95] Experts in the medical surgical profession have collaborated with Jehovah's Witnesses to produce information regarding the benefits of bloodless techniques and therapies.^[96]

Baptized Witnesses who willingly violate the prohibition on blood are subject to being "disfellowshipped" (organized communal shunning).^{[97][98][99][100] [101][102]}

[edit] History

Part of a series on Jehovah's Witnesses
About Jehovah's Witnesses
Demographics
Organizational structure
Governing Body · Legal instruments Faithful and Discreet Slave
History
Bible Student movement Jehovah's Witnesses splinter groups
Government interactions
Supreme Court cases
Persecution
United States · Canada Nazi Germany
Controversies
Beliefs
Beliefs and practices
God's name · Eschatology Blood · Disfellowshipping
Literature
The Watchtower · Awake! New World Translation
Digital Files
Watchtower MP3 | Awake MP3
Related people
Formative influences
C.T. Russell · William Miller N.H. Barbour · Jonas Wendell
Watchtower Presidents
J.F. Rutherford · N.H. Knorr F.W. Franz · M.G. Henschel D.A. Adams
Notable Watchtower Officials
Hayden C. Covington · A. H. Macmillan
Notable Former Jehovah's Witnesses
Raymond Franz · James Penton Olin R. Moyle
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Main articles: History of Jehovah's Witnesses, Eschatology of Jehovah's Witnesses, Jehovah's Witnesses and governments, and Persecution of Jehovah's Witnesses

Jehovah's Witnesses originated with the religious movement known as Bible Students, which was founded in the late 1870s by Charles Taze Russell. Various splinter groups arose after Russell's death, particularly with the beginning of the presidency of Russell's successor, Joseph Franklin Rutherford. Those who remained supportive of the Watchtower Society, in 1931 came to adopt the name Jehovah's Witnesses, under Rutherford's leadership. Some of the splinter groups survive to this day, though few of these have upwards of 1000 adherents (see splinter groups article). Those who did not support Rutherford formed various Bible Student groups which have retained Russell's teachings. Jehovah's Witnesses no longer use "Bible Students" as a formal name for their religion.

[edit] Russell and Barbour

In the early 1870s, Russell organized a Bible study group composed mostly of Second Adventists (a group that arose after the Millerite Great Disappointment) in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.^[103]

An interest in Bible prophecy was sparked, in part, by Jonas Wendell. In 1876, Russell met Nelson H. Barbour and subsequently adopted Barbour's eschatology. Barbour had predicted the visible return of Christ at 1873, and when that failed to occur, he revised the prediction to 1874.^[104][105] Soon after Barbour's second disappointment, his group decided Christ had returned invisibly to Earth in 1874.^[106] They differed from most Second Adventists, teaching that all mankind descending from Adam would be given a chance to live in a paradise on Earth. In 1877, Barbour and Russell jointly published the book The Three Worlds detailing their views.^[107] A gathering of the saints to heaven was expected for 1878 and the year 1914 was to mark the end of Gentile control of the city of Jerusalem and the final end of the rule of human governments, marking a forty-year period from 1874.^[108] By 1877, a separation between the Barbour-Russell group and the Advent Christian denomination was apparent.^[109]

[edit] Russell's break with Barbour

In July 1879, Russell broke with Barbour after Barbour discounted the worth of what is known as the substitutionary atonement^[110] and he soon began publishing his own magazine, Zion's Watch Tower and Herald of Christ's Presence (now known as The Watchtower).^[111] After the break, Russell retained the bulk of Barbour's eschatological views.^[112] He also maintained the Adventist rejection of the traditional view of Hell and by 1882 had rejected the doctrine of the Trinity.^[113] In 1881 he formed the legal entity which developed into the non-profit organization: The Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania (currently headquartered in New York City).^[114] In 1884, it was incorporated, with Russell as president. He authored the six-volume series, Studies in the Scriptures.^[115] Early editions predicted that Armageddon would culminate in the year 1914.^[116] Various statements assuring the accuracy and authority of their predictions were issued, such as "We see no reason for changing the figures — nor could we change them if we would. They are, we believe, God’s dates, not ours. But bear in mind that the end of 1914 is not the date for the beginning, but for the end of the time of trouble."^[117] In contrast, Russell also wrote regarding his expectations: "We are not prophesying; we are merely giving our surmises ... We do not even aver that there is no mistake in our interpretation of prophecy and our calculations of chronology. We have merely laid these before you, leaving it for each to exercise his own faith or doubt in respect to them."^[118] In 1914, Russell founded the International Bible Students Association in the United Kingdom.

[edit] Presidency of Joseph Franklin Rutherford

Following Russell's death on October 31, 1916, an editorial committee of five was set up to supervise the writing of the Watch Tower magazine, as set forth in Russell's Last Will and Testament.^[119] On January 6, 1917, Joseph Franklin Rutherford (also known as "Judge" Rutherford) was elected second President of the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society. A power struggle soon developed between Rutherford and four of the seven-member Board of Directors of the Society.^[120] Matters reached a climax on July 17, 1917 as the book The Finished Mystery was released to the headquarters staff in Brooklyn.^[121] Rutherford announced to the staff that he was also dismissing the four directors and replacing them with new members, claiming they had not been legally elected.^[122] The four dismissed directors set up the Pastoral Bible Institute and began publishing their own religious journal. Dissension and schisms ensued in congregations worldwide as a result of these events, and of the consequences of new predictions made for the years 1918,^[123] 1920^[124] and 1925.^[125][126]

The Finished Mystery, published in 1917, was controversial in its criticism of Catholic and Protestant clergy and Christian involvement in war.^[127] Citing this book, the United States federal government indicted Rutherford and the new board of directors for violating the Espionage Act on May 7, 1918. They were found guilty and sentenced to 20 years imprisonment. However, in March 1919, the judgment against them was reversed and they were released from prison.^[128] The charges were later dropped.^[129] Patriotic fervor during World War I fueled persecution of the Bible Students both in America and in Europe.^[130]

An emphasis on house-to-house preaching began in 1922.^[131] The period from 1925-1933 saw many significant changes in doctrine. Attendance at their yearly Memorial dropped from a high of 90,434 in 1925^[132] down to 17,380 in 1928,^[133] due to the previous power struggle, the failed predictions for the year 1925,^[134] and the evolving doctrinal changes which alienated those who sided with Russell's views.^[135] By 1933, 1914 was seen as the beginning of Christ's presence, his enthronement as king, and the start of the "last days" instead of being considered the terminal date in their chronology.^[136] The editorial committee was disbanded with Rutherford having the final say regarding what went into Watchtower publications.^[137] The offices and election of elders and deacons were also discontinued during this era with all "servants" in local congregations being appointed by headquarters.^[138]

Hitler's Nazi Germany persecuted Jehovah's Witnesses and many were imprisoned in concentration camps. Their identifying badge was a purple triangle.^[139] In a book on Jehovah's Witnesses under the Nazi regime, Hans Hesse commented, "Some five thousand Jehovah's Witnesses were sent to concentration camps where they alone were 'voluntary prisoners', so termed because the moment they recanted their views, they could be freed. Some lost their lives in the camps, but few renounced their faith"^[140] During this time period, Witnesses also experienced mob violence in America and were temporarily banned in Canada and Australia because they were perceived as being against the war effort.^[141]

Under Rutherford, membership grew from about 21,000 in 1917 to about 115,000 at the time of his death in 1942.

[edit] Nathan Knorr, reorganization, and subsequent Presidents

Nathan Homer Knorr succeeded Rutherford as president of the Watch Tower Society. Known as an efficient administrator, Knorr founded the Watchtower Bible School of Gilead to train missionaries, as well as the Theocratic Ministry School to train preaching and teaching at the congregational level. Significant Supreme Court victories involving the rights of free speech and religion for Jehovah's Witnesses have had a great impact on legal interpretation of these rights for others.^[142] In 1943, the United States Supreme Court ruled in West Virginia State Board of Education vs. Barnette that school children of Jehovah's Witnesses could not be compelled to salute the flag. In the United States, over 60 Supreme Court cases involving Jehovah's Witnesses have shaped First Amendment law. By 1988, the U.S. Supreme Court had reviewed 71 cases involving Jehovah's Witnesses, two thirds of which were decided in their favor.

Knorr's vice-president Frederick William Franz became the leading theologian, and is believed to have been the principal translator of the New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures.^[143] Also produced were a Greek-English New Testament interlinear (The Kingdom Interlinear Translation of the Greek Scriptures) and a Bible dictionary (Aid to Bible Understanding).^[144] The offices of elder and ministerial servant were restored to Witness congregations in 1972, with appointments being made from headquarters.^[145] Membership rose from 115,000 to over 2 million under Knorr's presidency.

During the 1960s^[146] and early 1970s, various references were made in Witnesses' literature and at assemblies, implying that Christ's thousand-year millennial reign might begin by 1975.^[147] The chronology pointing to 1975 was noted in the secular media at the time.^[148] From 1975 to 1980, there was a drop in membership following an uneventfull 1975.^[149] In 1980, the Watchtower Society admitted its responsibility in building up hope regarding the year 1975.^[150]

In 1976, the leadership of Jehovah's Witnesses was reorganized, and the power of the presidency passed on to the Governing Body of Jehovah's Witnesses of the Watch Tower Society after Knorr's death in 1977 have been Frederick William Franz, Milton George Henschel and Don A. Adams. However, since 1976, doctrinal and organizational decisions have been made by the Governing Body and they supervise the writing of Watchtower publications.^[151] Witnesses no longer teach that the timing of Armageddon is tied to the literal generation of people alive in 1914,^[152][153] but are told not to lose confidence in "the nearness of Jehovah's day of judgment".^[154]

[edit] Demographics

Main article: Demographics of Jehovah's Witnesses

Jehovah's Witnesses have an active presence in most countries, though they do not form a large part of the population of any country. Brazil, Mexico, and the United States are the only countries where the number of active Witness publishers exceeds half a million. As of February 2008, Jehovah's Witnesses have an average of 6.8 million members actively involved in preaching.^[155] Since the mid-1990s, the number of peak publishers has increased from 4.5 million to 7.0 million.^[156] However, there has been a decline in growth rates, from over 8% per annum in the mid 1970s, to 5% per annum in the mid 1990s, to about 2% - 3% per annum since 1999.^[157] Growth rates and activity reports tend to show significant geographical variation.^[158] The official published membership statistics only include those who have reported preaching activity. 'Inactive' and disfellowshipped members, and any who have either not been involved in preaching or have not submitted reports, are not included in the reported figures but may be reflected in the attendance at the Witnesses' annual Memorial, with over 17 million attending in 2007.^[159]

[edit] Organizational structure

Main article: Organizational structure of Jehovah's Witnesses

Jehovah's Witnesses are led by a Governing Body located at the Watchtower headquarters. The Watchtower Society was incorporated as Zion’s Watch Tower Tract Society in 1884. Its directors served as the central Governing Body overseeing their preaching work.^[160] This initial Governing Body was composed of five men and two women.^[161] As of 1971 the Governing Body consisted of the Board of Directors of the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania, a body of seven men, and the agenda of the Governing Body was set by the President of the Watch Tower Society, who was also a member. The Governing Body was enlarged by Nathan H. Knorr to include other members of the Society in 1971, and its membership rose to eleven men. In that year, the chairmanship of the group began to rotate annually.^[162] The number of men who make up the Governing Body has ranged from 9 to 17 and now stands at 9.

The Governing Body, through the departments of its various legal organizations, directs the operation of the 112 branches throughout the world.^[163] Members volunteer to operate these facilities. Each branch assigns circuit overseers who travel among various congregations, spending a week with each. Within each local congregation, elders assigned by the branch organize the congregation's public ministry and schedule various speakers for congregational teaching. They also decide on qualified members of the congregation for the positions of elder or ministerial servant, requiring the approval of higher leadership.

Elders are prominent in congregational matters, particularly in religious instruction and spiritual counseling. Ministerial servants generally assist elders in a limited administrative capacity. Both roles are unpaid, but circuit and district overseers receive a small financial living allowance. All baptized Witnesses consider themselves to be ordained ministers, and are expected to be able to provide religious instruction to others. Males are encouraged to qualify for responsibilities in the congregation and to work towards becoming ministerial servants or elders. Within local congregations the role of women is minimal in terms of responsibility. They cannot serve as elders or ministerial servants, though they carry out a large proportion of the preaching work, including missionary work, pioneering, and helping others in the congregation to become more regular in preaching.

The legal instruments of Jehovah's Witnesses include corporations that represent the religion in legal matters. Most well known is the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania. In 2000, three new non-profit corporations were organized:

Christian Congregation of Jehovah's Witnesses, Inc. coordinates all service (i.e., preaching) activities, including door-to-door preaching, circuit and district conventions, etc.

Religious Order of Jehovah's Witnesses, Inc. coordinates the activities of those involved in full-time service, including pioneers, missionaries, and circuit and district overseers.

Kingdom Support Services, Inc. controls construction of new Kingdom Halls and other facilities and holds the titles to Society-owned vehicles.

[edit] Publications

Main article: List of Jehovah's Witnesses Publications

The publishing arm of Jehovah's Witnesses, known as the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania engages in extensive publication work. In addition to their two magazines— 'The Watchtower' and 'Awake!', each having tens of millions of monthly copies printed — they also publish many brochures, tracts, books, Bible maps, and encyclopedias including the New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures.

• The Watchtower has been published continuously since 1879. Until 2007, The Watchtower was published twice a month, on the 1st and a 15th of each month. From 2008 onward, a Study Edition typically including five articles for use at the Watchtower Study, is published on the 15th of each month; a separate edition for use in the public ministry is published on the 1st of each month. It is published in 167 languages.

• Awake!, a general interest magazine, has a wider scope than the Watchtower, publishing articles on science, nature, and geography, usually with a religious slant. Earlier titles for this magazine were The Golden Age (1919–1937) and Consolation (1937–1946). Until 2005, Awake! was published on the 8th and 22nd of each month; from 2006 onwards, one issue is published eached month. It is available in 81 languages.

• New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures is a translation of the Bible by the New World Bible Translation Committee, last revised in 1984 in English. It extensively uses the name Jehovah, an English version of the Hebrew Tetragrammaton, also replacing the Greek word for "Lord" some 237 times in the New Testament. It is available in 71 Languages. The translators have opted to remain anonymous but others have identified them as being prominent leaders of the movement.^[164]

• What Does the Bible Really Teach? (2005) The official textbook used to conduct Bible Studies with non-Witnesses.^[165]

• Keep Yourselves in God's Love (2008) Companion volume to What Does the Bible Really Teach? to be studied with new converts.

Jehovah's Witnesses developed the capability to print Bible literature in multiple languages, and in extremely large volumes, in their own facilities. They currently print all publications at 8 branch offices located around the world.^[166] Since 1 January 2000 all publications are offered free of charge world-wide.

[edit] Controversy

Main article: Controversies regarding Jehovah's Witnesses

Witnesses teach that after the death of the last apostle, the Church gradually diverged, in a Great Apostasy (2 Thessalonians 2:6-12), from the original teachings of Jesus on several major points. Thus most of the doctrines of Jehovah's Witnesses differ from those of mainstream Christianity, and are considered heresy by most mainstream Christian scholars. Possibly the most controversial doctrinal differences relate to the nature of God and of Jesus, particularly the Jehovah's Witnesses' rejection of the Trinity. In contrast with trinitarian doctrine, they believe that Jesus was not God in a human body, but rather that he was God's firstborn (created) Son created before all other creation. The beliefs of Jehovah's Witnesses about hell, the immortality of the soul, the return of Jesus to the earth, and salvation are also controversial.

Some scholars have criticized the New World Translation, the translation of the Bible published by Jehovah's Witnesses, stating that the group has changed the Bible to suit their doctrine and that the translation contains a number of errors and inaccuracies.^[167] The Society publishes an interlinear edition of the New World Translation, the Kingdom Interlinear Translation of the Christian Greek Scriptures, which provides the actual Greek text used in translation (Westcott & Hort), a word-for-word literal English translation underneath, and the New World Translation alongside, enabling the reader to consider such charges directly regarding the New Testament.

A number of books have been published that are critical of the Watchtower Bible & Tract Society.^[168] Critics state that the Watchtower Society has made a number of unfulfilled predictions and doctrinal changes over the years, while claiming that it is the "one and only channel"^[169] used by God to continually dispense truth.

Raymond Franz, a former member of the Governing Body of Jehovah's Witnesses, has challenged the Witnesses' policies on blood transfusions, stating that their requirements are inconsistent and contradictory.^[170] However, to Witnesses blood as the fluid per se is not the real issue, it is what it represents. They say that "the important thing is that respect has been shown for the sanctity of blood, regard has been shown for the principle of the sacredness of life" represented by the blood.^[171][172] When the blood has been drained from an animal, the respect has been shown to God and then a person may eat the meat even though it may contain minute traces of blood.

Critics have also argued that various Witness policies and practices — including the treatment of members who dissociate themselves or who have been disfellowshipped by the congregation — limit the ability of members to exercise personal freedom.^[173][174] Witnesses teach that "freedom to make decisions [is] to be exercised within the boundaries of God’s laws and principles."^[175] And that “only Jehovah [is] free to set the standard of what is good and bad.”^[176] However, the leadership promotes itself as the channel God uses to interpret the scriptures, and it instructs members about "what is good and bad."^[177]

Some countries such as Uzbekistan, Belarus, and the city of Moscow have opposed the building of facilities (such as Kingdom Halls) and the holding of large conventions in their territory. Though such opposition is at times specifically directed at the religious group, at other times more mundane concerns are involved, such as traffic congestion and noise. In some legal cases, such as Congrégation des témoins de Jéhovah de St-Jérôme-Lafontaine v. Lafontaine (Village), disputes that have apparently been about appropriate land use have come out of religious bias, according to Jehovah's Witnesses' claims.

[edit] See also

• Bloodless surgery
• Bible Student movement
• Jehovah's Witnesses splinter groups
• Religious rejection of politics
• Restorationism
• Supreme Court cases involving Jehovah's Witnesses
• The Holocaust

[edit] References

[edit] Further reading

[edit] Books

• Jehovah's Witnesses: Portrait of a Contemporary Religious Movement by Andrew Holden. An academic study on the sociological aspects of Jehovah's Witnesses phenomenon. Publisher: Routledge; 1st edition 2002, ISBN 978-0415266109. 224 pages.
• Jehovah's Witnesses—Proclaimers of God's Kingdom (1993) by Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania. Official history of the development of the beliefs, practices, and organizational structure of Jehovah's Witnesses. 750 pages.
• A People for His Name: A History of Jehovah's Witnesses and an Evaluation by Tony Wills, (2006) 2nd edition. (The first edition was published under the pseudonym Timothy White.) He explores the Witnesses' doctrinal growth and shifts and notes schisms from the main body. 300 pages. ISBN 978-1-4303-0100-4 Selections from Google Books
• What Does the Bible Really Teach? Published by Jehovah's Wittnesses
• Controversies regarding Jehovah's Witnesses#Books Critical of Jehovah's Witnesses

[edit] External links

[edit] Official sites

• Jehovah's Witnesses: Watchtower Society Official Web Site
• Authorized Site of the Office of Public Information of Jehovah's Witnesses
• Worldwide Association of Jehovah's Witnesses - Site hosts Watchtower and Awake magazines download in MP3 and M4B audio formats.

[edit] Other sites

• BBC Religion: Jehovah's Witnesses
• Jehovah's Witnesses United — A collection of scholarly information supporting the Watchtower Bible & Tract Society's teachings and the New World Translation.
• 'Knocking' - an independently made documentary about Jehovah's Witnesses. Sample Trailer
• Strictly Genteel Theocratic Resources — Scans of complete books and booklets from Russell's era to Knorr's. The "site is maintained by one of Jehovah's Witnesses who fully supports the Watchtower Bible and Tract Society." Emphasis is on literature not found in the Watchtower Library CD-ROM.
• Theocratese Glossary - Glossary of terms used by Jehovah's Witnesses
• Interesting Jehovah's Witness Statistics A site providing statistical data.
• Jehovah's Witnesses Worldwide Building Directory