User:Janosabel/OtherTries

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This is a copy of the origingal article on binary economics by Rodney Shakespeare. It got torn apart by the wikipedia editors as completely and utterly non-encyclopedic. Rodney did not take it very well but I could not really defend the article agains the changes.


Binary economics states that it is the expression of a new paradigm or new understanding of reality that creates a new economics; a new politics; a new justice and a new morality.[1] In its economics aspect, binary economics is a market economics whose markets work for everybody rather than just a few; and it upholds private property but private property, again, for everybody rather than just a few.[2] A summary might be – a justice which creates efficiency and an efficiency which creates justice.[3]

Binary economics is fundamentally different from all forms of conventional economics (be they expressions of right-wing, centrist or left-wing theory).[4] Thus, unlike most mainstream economics, binary economics accommodates belief in God, unicity and ethics;[5] it does not assume that humans only follow their own immediate short term self interest;[6] and it does not assume that humans (as distinguished from capital instruments) do all, or nearly all, of the physical creation of wealth.[7] As a study, binary economics is not reductionist,[8] does not ignore the imbalance in power relationships between people,[9] and does not assume that extensive poverty (over half of the world's population lives on under $3 per day)[10] is inevitable. Being concerned with social justice and economic justice it also notes that allegedly successful 'free market' economies show symptoms of profound failure – thus figures from the 2004 Census show that one fifth of Americans live on under $7 per day.[11]

Furthermore, binary economics addresses a number of weaknesses in the current economic system which are dismissed by conventional economics as being of no, or low, importance. The weaknesses are:--


Courtesy Trisakti University, Jakarta, Indonesia
Courtesy Trisakti University, Jakarta, Indonesia
 Binary economics cannot be inflationary: it is counter-inflationary. Nor can it lead to a global financial crisis of the sort now threatening economies and markets.

Binary economics is beginning to be taught in universities. The first such teaching is on the Islamic Economics and Finance postgraduate program at Trisakti University, Jakarta, Indonesia. Trisakti is famous as the birthplace of the 1998 Indonesian reformasi revolution. It is the biggest private university in Indonesia and second only to the main state university in prestige.[16]
Professor Masudul Alam Choudhury, International Chair, Islamic Economics & Finance postgraduate program, Trisakti University
Professor Masudul Alam Choudhury, International Chair, Islamic Economics & Finance postgraduate program, Trisakti University

Contents

[edit] Background

Although elements of binary economics can be found elsewhere,[17] the first clear formulation of the subject was by Louis Kelso and Mortimer Adler (the American Aristotelian philosopher) in their unhappily entitled book The Capitalist Manifesto (1958).[18] The title is a Cold War nomenclature in opposition to communism[19] but the book’s thinking can only be truly understood as being outside all left-wing and right-wing economics and politics – which is demonstrated by the attacks which were made.[20] Thus, on the left, Soviet Pravda saw the book as “ramblings based on thinking along a dead end of history” – which was to prove egregious as communism was soon to collapse and binary economics is today increasingly being seen as a very modern economics and politics – while, on the right, Milton Friedman was nonplussed and could only conclude that binary economics must be “Marx stood on its head”.[21]

Very obviously, extreme left saw binary economics as extreme right; and hard right saw it as extreme left. And equally obviously, the puzzlement and confusion of Pravda and Friedman only serve to confirm that binary economics is outside both left-wing and right-wing paradigms.[22]

Kelso and Adler[23] (and, later, Patricia Hetter Kelso) were to continue to write ground-breaking books[24] explaining how capital instruments provide an increasing percentage of the wealth and, crucially, how and why capital is narrowly owned in the modern industrial economy. Their analysis then has an important consequence easily understood by market theorists – if what increasingly produces a larger percentage of the wealth (capital) is narrowly owned, then a properly balanced economy (implementing Say’s Theorem (Law)) cannot come into being unless, on true free market and private property principles, capital becomes much more widely distributed.[25] This is at the heart of the binary claim to create an efficiency which creates justice and vice versa.[26]

Kelso and Hetter gave practical form to their thinking and proposed new binary share holdings which (with exception for research, maintenance and depreciation) would pay out their full capital earnings, be capable of being insured and, if loss occurred, would occasion no recourse to the new binary owners. Because of the full payout provision the binary holdings might well pay out more than five to nine times what is typically paid out today.[27] Thus what was being proposed was a new widespread capital ownership to achieve a widespread income (thereby balancing supply and demand) and associated individual incomes which can be possessed by anybody in the population irrespective of whether or not that person is in a conventional job or not.[28]

The “binary” (in ‘binary economics’) sometimes perplexes people. It means “composed of two” because it suffices to view the factors in production as being but two (labor and capital) and thus there are only two ways of genuinely earning a living − by labor or by the ownership of productive capital.[29] In viewing the two factors it can also be observed that humans own their own labor but they do not necessarily own the other factor – capital.[30]

[edit] Employee Stock Ownership Plans (ESOPs)

Very often the first acquaintance people have with binary economics comes through today’s Employee Stock Ownership Plans (ESOPs). These stem from a binary concept although it is important to understand that (the original concept having been implemented for the purposes of the old paradigm rather than the new binary one) present ESOPs are not true binary ESOPs. Among other things, present ESOPs do not have full payout of earnings and – the key binary concept – do not make use of interest-free loans issued from the central bank and administered by the banking system.[31]

It should be noted that the ESOP is only one of several techniques − e.g., Individual Share Ownership Plan, Consumer Share Ownership Plan,[32] General Share Ownership Plan, Mutual Share Ownership Plan[33] − which can be used to broaden capital ownership but all the techniques have at their heart the use of central bank-issued interest-free loans for the creation and spreading of productive capacity.[34] Without those loans the primary defect in the present ESOP legislation will remain in that it requires poor and working people to acquire capital primarily with the present earnings of labor rather than primarily with the future earnings of capital.[35]

[edit] Binary Economics Today

Over the last few years binary economics has been developing[36] and, in particular, making universal its appeal so that its essence is more easily understood around the world.[37] Apart from the books, key papers have been presented at an important series of conferences focussing on money supply and the real economy (see Money Supply and Real Economy Conferences below). Whereas, for example, the proposed uses of central bank-issued interest-free loans had been limited or under-developed, they now cover all the economy as long as the spreading of productive capacity is involved;[38] whereas public capital and environmental capital were, relatively, neglected, they are now principal subjects;[39] and whereas the first emphasis was on capital ownership it is now on the supply of interest-free loans for the spreading of productive capacity which can take many different forms.[40] The emphasis on the interest-free loan supply is especially important for Islam.[41] But, most important of all, binary economics is now seen to be by far the most universal economics with the most efficiency and the most justice so that it falls naturally within the global justice movement – see http://www.globaljusticemovement.net and monetary reform – and, at the same time, it is an economics which corresponds deeply with core aspects of religious belief. It can thus be taken up by any society and any faith and, in so doing, they may call it their own.[42]


One World…

For example, Binary economics has a concept of unicity embracing all aspects of life.[43] This resonates with Muslims (Tawhid);[44] Christians ( Kingdom (or Kin-dom) of God);[45] Hindus, Buddhists, Jains and Sikhs (Dharma); and Jews (Shalom).

…Many Faiths

Furthermore, binary economics now confidently embraces major elements from the present and the past.[46]

Past

From the past come: –

Present

From the present come key insights including: –

  • money today is created out of nothing as debt on which riba/interest is imposed
  • in respect of newly-created central bank loans which are lent interest-free for the spreading of productive or environmental capital purpose, riba/interest ─ as distinct from administrative and any other essential cost ─ is not merely wrong and debilitative of the economy and society but is not necessary
  • the technological capacity exists to eliminate poverty and thus continuing poverty is the fault of human institutions and practices rather than of any inadequacy of equipment or expertise.

Binary economics says that past and present then come together to create a new economics, a new politics, a new social morality, a solution to the major problems of the environment and a deepening of democracy. On the latter point, the political vote is far from enough. In a world where 25,000 people die each day from the effects of unclean water,[47] a deepening of democracy requires not only the vote but also the proper provision of clean water, health services, housing, education and also some form of income, if only minimal, for all individuals.[48]

Other consequences of binary economics include an end to economic colonialism, a diminution of the national debt; an improvement in the position of women and policy to unite differing groups.[49]

[edit] Uses of Central Bank-issued Interest-free Loans for the Spreading of Productive Capacity

Binary economics proposes that central bank-issued interest-free loans should be administered by the banking system and that, while no interest would be charged, there would be an administrative cost as well as capital credit insurance if necessary.[50] This supply of interest-free loans for the spreading of productive capacity as well as for environmental and public capital would take place in circumstances of (over time, on market principles) a move to 100% banking reserves so that the banking system would not be continually creating money (as happens today) but would be confined to lending (with permission) depositors’ money and the bank’s own capital.[51]


The uses of the central bank-issued interest-free loans can be summarized as follows: –


[edit] Public capital investment

Alberta children's hospital
Alberta children's hospital
Philadelphia Waterworks and Museum. Source: Jeannine Keefer
Philadelphia Waterworks and Museum. Source: Jeannine Keefer
Nanpu Bridge in Shanghai
Nanpu Bridge in Shanghai

Interest-free loans would allow hospitals, social housing, roads, bridges, waterworks, schools etc. to be built for one half, or one third of the present cost. However, the capital projects can still, if wished, be built, managed, even owned, by the private sector.[52]

With interest-free loans not only would the cost of public capital projects be halved or more but their financing would not need to be done with interest-bearing money. A major consequence would be a great diminution of the National Debt.


Throughout the world an estimated 25,000 people die each day as the result of dirty water.

Outpourings of sewage like this...
Outpourings of sewage like this...
resulting in this...
resulting in this...
can be ended by building this
can be ended by building this

[edit] Private capital investment

Fractionating columns
Fractionating columns
 Ownership of productive (and the associated consuming) capacity can be spread by binary economics.[53]

Interest-free loans should be allowed for private capital investment IF such investment creates new owners of capital and is part of national policy to enable all individuals, over time, on market principles, to become owners of substantial amounts of productive, income-producing capital.[54] By using central bank-issued interest-free loans, a large company/corporation would get cheap money as long as new binary shareholders are created. The key point is that the cost, at the very least, is being halved while, at the same time, the ownership of productive capacity is being spread.[55]
Cement works in Norway
Cement works in Norway

[edit] “Green” environmental capital investment

Interest-free loans should be used, in particular, for clean, renewable energy.[56] At present, a lot of green technology projects are not financially viable. With interest-free loans, however, they would become viable. At last we would be able to have clean electricity through tidal barrages, wave machines, wind turbines, solar electricity, and geothermal power stations.[57] Time is short. Global warning is accelerating. A crash program of clean energy-generating projects is urgently needed.

There is now also hope that some technologies, previously thought to be physically impossible, are practical. An example is the use of magnetic interactions for clean electricity generation which does not require the input of any other energy (i.e. “free” energy generation). Cars, houses, trains, factories could be powered by clean, “free” magnetically-generated electricity – see steorn, http://www.steorn.com[58] All of these technologies should be implemented with interest-free loans.

Clean electricity generation projects can be constructed at one half or less of the usual cost. The Rance tidal barrage in France is 330 metres long although similar structures can be many times larger and can also be built out at sea in shallow coastal waters.
La Rance, France, tidal barrage power plant
La Rance, France, tidal barrage power plant

[edit] Small and start-up businesses including microfinance

Courtesy Mr & Mrs Eddleston, Greenhouse Farm, North Yorkshire, UK
Courtesy Mr & Mrs Eddleston, Greenhouse Farm, North Yorkshire, UK
 Interest-free loans should be used for micro-finance, small business and farms thereby freeing them from the huge pressure of compounding interest-bearing debt.

Farm capital can be one half or less of the usual cost.

The world’s poor people can be enabled to acquire some capital by the use of interest-free micro-finance.[59] However, today, as in Bangladesh, the micro-finance money bears interest. This is because, increasingly, donor fatigue is resulting in the drying-up of grant money and so micro-finance lending institutions are turning to borrowing from commercial sources at interest. This causes the loans to cost twice as much as they need cost and that has dire consequences for people living on one or two dollars per day.
Women at a village pond in Matlab, Bangladesh, washing utensils and vegetables. The woman on the right is putting a sari filter onto a water-collecting pot (or kalash) to filter water for drinking
Women at a village pond in Matlab, Bangladesh, washing utensils and vegetables. The woman on the right is putting a sari filter onto a water-collecting pot (or kalash) to filter water for drinking

[edit] Loans to students

Students should not be unnecessarily burdened with interest-bearing debt maybe for the rest of their lives. Interest-free loans should be available to students whilst they complete their studies.

Courtesy Trisakti University, Jakarta, Indonesia
Courtesy Trisakti University, Jakarta, Indonesia
 Even at the age of five, good education is expensive and most people cannot afford it. In practice, therefore, religious organisations or the state pay for most children's schooling.

Binary economics, however, aims to ensure that there is sufficient income for a child's basic needs which include the provision of education. Over time, the income would increase sufficiently to pay for basic education at the older age levels.[60] NB Upon leaving education the income would stay with the child (now an adult).
Veterinary students
Veterinary students

[edit] Flow of Interest-free Loans for the Spreading of Productive Capacity[61]

Image:BinaryLoansGraphics.jpg

[edit] Environment

 Binary economics spreads productive (and the associated consuming) capacity so that all individuals in the population − including babies, carers and those not normally in conventional employment − have at least some form of secure, independent income. The income starts small and grows larger over time.[62] This is essential if there is to be any hope of changing people's attitudes towards excessive consumption.[63] At present virtually everyone has either had a scarring experience of poverty or has a perception or fear that they might fall into poverty. In short, people feel insecure and that is one of the main factors in explaining greed. The insecurity − and the associated aggressive consuming attitudes − will only disappear if all people have material security and, at the same time, all people in some degree earn in exactly the same way as do others (i.e. at least part of their individual income should come through capital ownership). Only then will there be hope of people voluntarily minimising their greed.

Greed is also caused by the present financial system which creates sufficient money for the principal of interest-bearing loans to be repaid but does not create sufficient money with which to repay the interest.[64] The result is that more interest-bearing money has to be created (with more inflation and more people going into debt) and more frenetic activity in the endeavour to try to make repayment.[65] Worse, the system favours the short term destruction of natural wealth rather than its long term maintenance.[66] Unless the role of interest in the financial system is substantially diminished not only is the environment at risk but so is the stability of the world financial system.[67]

It is also the case that populations only stabilise when there is a reasonable standard of living, good education and health and at least some status for women. Binary economics provides these things and is essential if the present growth of the world's population is to be moderated.[68]

Lastly, there is now an extraordinary range of 'alternative' green technologies capable of generating clean electricity but which cannot be used because, in the present system of interest-bearing money, they are not financially viable. With interest-free loans, however, they will become viable.[69]

[edit] Productiveness

Students of binary economics may wish to be briefly introduced to an important binary concept – productiveness. Binary productiveness and conventional productivity are completely different animals.[70]

Conventional productivity, in the conventional classical and neo-classical sense, is the ratio of labor as input to the overall output.[71] As a mathematical fraction, it is output divided by human input.[72]

In contrast, binary productiveness is the percentage of total input that labor and capital each contributes to the output.[73] In binary economics, labor and capital are viewed as being of a different, although co-operating, nature and therefore should be seen as separate inputs contributing to output.[74] Capital contributes an increasing percentage as even Marx understood.[75] For example, a man digging a hole with his hands only will take four hours. But, by using a form of capital − a shovel − he can dig the hole in one hour or dig four holes in the same amount of time it took him to dig one hole with his hands. The productiveness of the human labor is 25% while the productiveness of the capital shovel is 75%. Together, of course, man and shovel − labour and capital − produce much more than they would produce separately.[76]

Where binary productiveness is concerned, it is also useful to consider the examples of an automated factory or a huge dam producing electricity and fresh water. In the case of the automated factory there is minimal or no human input (the work involved in design and building is over and has received its payment, and maintenance and repair are only maintenance and repair rather than a direct contribution to production).[77]

In the case of the dam, with relatively little human input although it is critical, the physical output of the capital is huge and binary economics views the sun, weather and gravity as greatly contributing to the production. The latter are co-operating capital assets even if they are ones which cannot be owned.[78] Binary economics views both humans and capital assets as production factors having an independent productiveness which does not stop their co-operating with other independent production factors but which does mean that their contribution to production requires individual recogntition.

[edit] Criticism of binary economics

Criticism of binary economics tends to concentrate on the example of the man digging the hole. A paper by Timothy D. Terrell[79] summarizes a critique given by Timothy Roth[80] on the shovel example. The criticism claims that: a) somebody invented the shovel; b) the shovel cannot be independent. Roth argues that someone with human capital had to invent the shovel before it could be used, so the presence of the shovel is not independent of human capital. Also, Roth notes the presumption that the human hole digger has no role in the productiveness of the shovel.

But, firstly, the fact that somebody invented the shovel has nothing to do with its present use for digging a hole and binary economics views the shovel as an independent contributor which co-operates with the man just as the man co-operates with the shovel.

Secondly, just as two humans can, and do, co-operate, so the man and the shovel co-operate to dig the hole and produce far more holes than either the man or shovel could do by themselves.

Moreover, binary economics does not say the human digger has no role in the shovel’s productiveness − both binary economics[81] and Roth agree[82] that man and shovel together produce far more than man or shovel separately.

Furthermore, when an automated factory, or a huge dam producing electricity and fresh water, are considered, the critics of the binary analysis of productiveness have a problem − in the case of the automated factory there is no human input (design and building have been paid for, and maintenance and repair are maintenance and repair but not a direct contribution to production). In the case of the dam, with relatively little human input although it is critical, the physical output of the capital is huge (and, don’t forget, the sun, weather and gravity can be viewed as co-operating capital assets but ones which cannot be owned).

[edit] Money Supply and Real Economy Conferences

The Conferences are part of a continuing series.

  • International Islamic University, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, August, 2002.
  • The Trisakti University, Jakarta, Indonesia, January, 2004.
  • International Islamic University, Chittagong, Bangladesh, December, 2004.
  • McGill University, Montreal, Canada, September, 2005.
  • Asian University of Bangladesh, Dhaka, Bangladesh, December, 2005.
  • The Trisakti University, Jakarta, Indonesia, December, 2006.


[edit] Selected External Links


[edit] Selected Texts

  • Ashford, Robert The Binary Economics of Louis Kelso, (Rutgers Law Journal, vol. 22. 1990).
  • Ashford, Robert Louis Kelso’s Binary Economy (The Journal of Socio-Economics, vol. 25, 1996).
  • Ashford, Robert & Shakespeare, Rodney (1999) Binary Economics the new paradigm.
  • Choudhury, Masudul Alam (2007) The Universal Paradigm and Islamic World-system. Economy, Society, Ethics and Science. Preface by Rodney Shakespeare.
  • el-Diwany, Tarek (2003) The Problem With Interest.
  • Gauche, Jerry Binary Modes for the Privatization of Public Assets, (The Journal of Socio-Economics. Vol. 27, 1998).
  • Greenfield, Sidney M. Making Another World Possible: the Torah, Louis Kelso and the Problem of Poverty (paper given at conference, Colombia University, May, 2006).
  • Kelso, Louis & Kelso, Patricia Hetter (1986 & 1991), Democracy and Economic Power.
  • Kelso, Louis & Adler, Mortimer (1958), The Capitalist Manifesto.
  • Kelso, Louis & Adler, Mortimer (1961), The New Capitalists.
  • Kelso, Louis & Hetter, Patricia (1967), Two-Factor Theory: the Economics of Reality.
  • Kelso, Louis (1957), Karl Marx: The Almost Capitalist (American Bar Association Journal, March, 1957)
  • Kurland, Norman The Federal Reserve Discount Window (Winter 1998, Journal of Employee Ownership Law and Finance).
  • Kurland, Norman A New Look at Prices and Money: The Kelsonian Binary Model for Achieving Rapid Growth Without Inflation.
  • Kurland, Norman; Brohawn, Dawn & Michael Greaney (2004) Capital Homesteading for Every Citizen: A Just Free Market Solution for Saving Social Security.
  • Miller, J.H. ed., (1994), Curing World Poverty: The New Role of Property.
  • Reiners, Mark Douglas, The Binary Alternative and Future of Capitalism.
  • Shakespeare, Rodney & Challen, Peter (2002) Seven Steps to Justice.
  • Shakespeare, Rodney, Integrating Islamic Finance into the Mainstream (paper delivered at Harvard, April, 2006)
  • Shakespeare, Rodney (2007) The Modern Universal Paradigm.
  • Shakespeare, Rodney & Proudfoot, Wilf (1976) The Two-factor Nation.
  • Turnbull, Shann (2001) The Use of Central Banks to Spread Ownership.
  • Turnbull, Shann (1975/2000), Democratising the Wealth of Nations.




  1. ^ Robert Ashford & Rodney Shakespeare (1999) Binary Economics − the new paradigm.
  2. ^ Norman Kurland, Dawn Brohawn & Michael Greaney (2004) Capital Homesteading for Every Citizen: A Just Free Market Solution for Saving Social Security.
  3. ^ Robert Ashford & Rodney Shakespeare (1999) op. cit. John H. Miller ed. (1994) Curing World Poverty: the New Role of Property. There are five Justices at www.globaljusticemovement.net
  4. ^ Robert Ashford (1990) The Binary Economics of Louis Kelso: the Promise of Universal Capitalism (Rutgers Law Journal, vol. 22 No.1. Fall, 1990).
  5. ^ Masudul Alam Choudhury (publication date is 31st July, 2007) The Universal Paradigm and Islamic World-system.
  6. ^ Rodney Shakespeare (publication date is June/July, 2007) The Modern Universal Paradigm.
  7. ^ Robert Ashford (1990) op. cit. Robert Ashford & Rodney Shakespeare (1999) op. cit.
  8. ^ Rodney Shakespeare, (2007) op. cit.
  9. ^ Rodney Shakespeare, (2007) op. cit.
  10. ^ “Over a fifth of the world’s population still live in abject poverty (under $1 a day), and about one-half live below the barely more generous standard of $2 a day.” Technical Report of the High-level Panel on Financing for Development (United Nations, Dec., 2000).
  11. ^ Poverty in America: American Dream Now a Nightmare for Millions −One in Five Lives on Less than $7 per day by William Shanley, Global Research, April 23, 2007 http://www.globalresearch.ca/index Retrieved 16th May, 2007
  12. ^ Rodney Shakespeare & Peter Challen (2002) op. cit.
  13. ^ Rodney Shakespeare (2007) op. cit.
  14. ^ Norman Kurland, Dawn Brohawn & Michael Greaney (2004) op. cit.
  15. ^ Rodney Shakespeare & Peter Challen (2002) op. cit.
  16. ^ Rodney Shakespeare (2007) op. cit.
  17. ^ e.g., Harold Moulton (1935) The Formation of Capital.
  18. ^ Louis Kelso & Mortimer Adler (1958) The Capitalist Manifesto.
  19. ^ Louis Kelso & Mortimer Adler (1958) op. cit.
  20. ^ Robert Ashford & Rodney Shakespeare (1999) op. cit.
  21. ^ Time magazine, June 29, 1970.
  22. ^ Robert Ashford & Rodney Shakespeare (1999) op. cit.
  23. ^ Louis Kelso & Mortimer Adler (1961) The New Capitalists.
  24. ^ Louis Kelso & Patricia Hetter (1967) Two-Factor Theory. Louis Kelso & Patricia Hetter Kelso (1986 & 1991) Democracy and Economic Power – Extending the ESOP Revolution through Binary Economics.
  25. ^ Norman Kurland (1972/2002) A New Look at Prices and Money − The Kelsonian Binary Model for Achieving Rapid Growth Without Inflation.
  26. ^ Norman Kurland, Dawn Brohawn & Michael Greaney (2004) op. cit. Louis Kelso & Patricia Hetter (1967) op. cit. Louis Kelso & Patricia Hetter Kelso (1986 & 1991) op. cit.
  27. ^ Louis Kelso & Patricia Hetter Kelso (1986 & 1991) op. cit.
  28. ^ Louis Kelso & Patricia Hetter (1967) op. cit. Robert Ashford & Rodney Shakespeare (1999) op. cit. Norman Kurland, Dawn Brohawn & Michael Greaney (2004) op. cit.
  29. ^ Louis Kelso & Patricia Hetter Kelso (1986 & 1991) op. cit.
  30. ^ Robert Ashford & Rodney Shakespeare (1999) op. cit.
  31. ^ Louis Kelso & Patricia Hetter Kelso (1986 & 1991) op. cit.
  32. ^ Jerry Gauche, General Stock Ownership Corporations: Another Step in Broadening Capital Ownership (30 American University Review, 1981). Jerry Gauche, Binary Modes for the Privatisation of Public Assets, (The Journal of Socio-Economics. Vol. 27, 1998).
  33. ^ Louis Kelso & Patricia Hetter Kelso (1986 & 1991) op. cit.
  34. ^ Louis Kelso & Patricia Hetter Kelso (1986 & 1991) op. cit.
  35. ^ Robert Ashford & Rodney Shakespeare (1999) op. cit.
  36. ^ Robert Ashford & Rodney Shakespeare (1999) op. cit. Norman Kurland (2001) Saving Social Security. Occasional paper available at www.cesj.org. Rodney Shakespeare & Peter Challen (2002) op. cit. Norman Kurland, Dawn Brohawn & Michael Greaney (2004) op. cit. Rodney Shakespeare (2007) op. cit. Masudul Alam Choudhury (2007) op. cit.
  37. ^ Rodney Shakespeare & Peter Challen (2002) op. cit. Rodney Shakespeare (2007) op. cit. Shakespeare & Challen, Seven Steps to Justice, 2002
  38. ^ Rodney Shakespeare (2007) op. cit.
  39. ^ Rodney Shakespeare (2007) op. cit.
  40. ^ Shann Turnbull (1975/2000), Democratising the Wealth of Nations. Shann Turnbull (2001) The Use of Central Banks to Spread Ownership. Jeff Gates (1999) The Ownership Solution. Jeff Gates (2000) Democracy at Risk.
  41. ^ Rodney Shakespeare Integrating Islamic Finance into the Mainstream paper presented at Harvard University conference on Islamic Finance, April, 2006. Masudul Alam Choudhury (2007) op. cit. Rodney Shakespeare (2007) op. cit.
  42. ^ Rodney Shakespeare (2007) op. cit.
  43. ^ Rodney Shakespeare, (2007)
  44. ^ Masudul Alam Choudhury (2007) op. cit.
  45. ^ Rodney Shakespeare & Peter Challen (2002) op. cit.
  46. ^ Rodney Shakespeare, (2007) op. cit.
  47. ^ Rodney Shakespeare & Peter Challen (2002) op. cit.
  48. ^ Rodney Shakespeare, (2007) op. cit.
  49. ^ Rodney Shakespeare, (2007) op. cit.
  50. ^ Louis Kelso, & Mortimer Adler (1961), op. cit. Norman Kurland (1998) The Federal Reserve Discount Window − www.cesj.org
  51. ^ Masudul Alam Choudhury (2007) op. cit. Rodney Shakespeare (2007) op. cit.
  52. ^ Rodney Shakespeare & Peter Challen (2002) op. cit.
  53. ^ Norman Kurland, Dawn Brohawn & Michael Greaney (2004) op. cit.
  54. ^ Norman Kurland, Dawn Brohawn & Michael Greaney (2004) op. cit.
  55. ^ Norman Kurland, Dawn Brohawn & Michael Greaney (2004) op. cit.
  56. ^ Norman Kurland, Dawn Brohawn & Michael Greaney (2004) op. cit.
  57. ^ Rodney Shakespeare, (2007) op. cit.
  58. ^ Rodney Shakespeare, (2007) op. cit.
  59. ^ Rodney Shakespeare, (2007) op. cit.
  60. ^ Norman Kurland, Dawn Brohawn & Michael Greaney (2004) op. cit.
  61. ^ Rodney Shakespeare, (2007) op. cit.
  62. ^ Norman Kurland, Dawn Brohawn & Michael Greaney (2004) op. cit.
  63. ^ Robert Ashford & Rodney Shakespeare (1999) op. cit.
  64. ^ Tarek el-Diwany (2003) The Problem with Interest.
  65. ^ Tarek el-Diwany (2003) op. cit.
  66. ^ Tarek el-Diwany (2003) op. cit.
  67. ^ Tarek el-Diwany (2003) op. cit.
  68. ^ Robert Ashford & Rodney Shakespeare (1999) op. cit.
  69. ^ Rodney Shakespeare (2007) op. cit.
  70. ^ Robert Ashford & Rodney Shakespeare (1999) op. cit. Robert Ashford Binary Economics −an overview (2006) http://ssrn.com/abstract=928752
  71. ^ Mark Douglas Reiners The Binary Alternative and the Future of Capitalism available at www.cesj.org
  72. ^ Robert Ashford (1990) op. cit.
  73. ^ Mark Douglas Reiners op cit Robert Ashford, Louis Kelso’s Binary Economy (The Journal of Socio-Economics, vol. 25, 1996).
  74. ^ Mark Douglas Reiners op cit.
  75. ^ Louis Kelso Karl Marx: The Almost Capitalist (American Bar Association Journal, March, 1957).
  76. ^ Robert Ashford (1990) op. cit.
  77. ^ Robert Ashford (1990) op. cit.
  78. ^ Mark Douglas Reiners op. cit Robert Ashford & Rodney Shakespeare (1999) op. cit.
  79. ^ Timothy D. Terrell Binary Economics: Paradigm Shift Or Cluster of Errors? Ludwig von Mises Institute
  80. ^ Timothy P. Roth, (1996) A Supply-Sider's (Sympathetic) View of Binary Economics Journal of Socio-Economics 25 (1) pp. 58–59.
  81. ^ Robert Ashford & Rodney Shakespeare (1999) op. cit., chapter 5.
  82. ^ Timothy P Roth,. (1996) op. cit. p. 60.