Italian Army

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Coat of Arms of the Italian Army
Coat of Arms of the Italian Army
Dardo IFV on exercise in Capo Teulada
Dardo IFV on exercise in Capo Teulada
Soldiers of the 33rd Field Artillery Regiment "Acqui" on parade
Soldiers of the 33rd Field Artillery Regiment "Acqui" on parade

The Italian Army (Esercito Italiano) is the ground defense force of the Military of Italy. On July 29, 2004 it became a professional all-volunteer force of 112,000 active duty personnel. The headquarters of the Army General Staff are in Rome, opposite the Presidential Palace.

Contents

[edit] History

The Italian Army originates in the Regio Esercito (literally: "Royal Army") which dates from the proclamation of the Kingdom of Italy following the Risorgimento, or unification of Italy in 1861 after the Papal states were seized. Under the leadership of Giuseppe Garibaldi, the House of Savoy, then represented by Victor Emmanuel II, was invited to take the throne of a new independent kingdom in 1861. The army's first real taste of modern warfare was in World War One and was fought mostly in northern Italy during which it suffered millions of casualties including over 700,000 dead. During the Interwar Years the army participated in the Invasion of Ethiopia, provided troops for the Corpo Truppe Volontarie to fight in the Spanish Civil War and in the Italian invasion of Albania. The Royal Army was one of the largest ground forces in World War Two during which it was one of the pioneers of the use of paratroopers. Many Italian divisions were reinforced by a MVSN Gruppo di Assalto of two battalions due to the small size of the divisions. In 1943 Italy surrendered and split into the Salo Republic, which fielded its own army, and the Italian Co-Belligerent Army (Esercito Cobelligerante del Sud) the army of the Italian royalist forces fighting on the side of the Allies in southern Italy after the Allied armistice with Italy in September 1943. The Italians soldiers fighting in this army no longer fought for Benito Mussolini as their allegiance was to King Victor Emmanuel and to Marshal of Italy (Maresciallo d'Italia) Pietro Badoglio, the men who ousted Mussolini. The kingdom was replaced by a Republic in 1946 and the Royal Army changed its name to become the Esercito Italiano. After WWII, the Army has participated in operations to aid to populations hit by natural disasters. It has, moreover, supplied a remarkable contribution to the forces of police for the control of the territory of the Alto Adige (1967), in Sardinia (“Paris“ 1992), in Sicily (“Vespri Siciliani“1992) and in Calabria (1994). Currently, it protects sensitive objects and places throughout the national territory (“Operazione Domino") since the tragedy of 11 September 2001. The army is also engaged in Missions abroad under the aegis of the UN, the NATO, and of Multinational forces, such as Beirut in Lebanon (1982), Namibia (1989), Albania (1991), Kurdistan (1991), Somalia (1992), Mozambique (1993), Bosnia (1995), East Timor and Kosovo (both in 1999), the Congo (2001), Darfur (2003), Afghanistan (2002), Iraq (2003) and Lebanon again (2006).

The Carabinieri, once the senior corps of the Army, is now an autonomous armed force (alongside the Army, Navy and Air Force). The Carabinieri provides military police services to all the Italian armed force.

[edit] Casualties of World War I and II

During WWI 5 million Italians served in the army with 1.5 million being wounded and over 700,000 being killed in action. Another million or so died from disease.

Reports of Italian military prowess in the Second World War were, almost always, grossly and unfairly dismissive. This is primarily the result of British wartime propaganda produced when the Italian 10th Army was destroyed by significantly smaller British forces during the early phase of the North African Campaign.[1] The propoganda tale from this single event, which was designed to boost British morale during a bleak period of the war and has since evolved into a legendary story,[2] has left a lasting impression that has almost completely destroyed Italian military reputation in the English speaking world. Prior to this incident, due largely to the events of the first world war and the likes of Giuseppe Garibaldi before, Italian soldiers were generally considered to be exceptionally brave.[citation needed]

Like any other army, the Italians suffered their fair share of reversals,[3] but it should be remembered that their equipment was not up to the standard of either the Allied or the German armies.[4] More crucially, they lacked suitable quantities of equipment of all kinds and their high command did not take necessary steps to plan for most eventualities.[5] They had few anti-aircraft weapons and their 'medium' M11, M13 and M14 tanks were at a marked disadvantage against the comparatively heavily armed American Sherman 'light' tanks. Coast defense guns were place round their tanks of the Ariete Division in North Africa to give extra protection.

The Italian army in Russia fought stubbornly under General Giovanni Messe, winning various accolades from Berlin Radio.[citation needed] Italian soldiers also fought with immense courage at the battles of Mersa Matruh and El Alamein in the North African Campaign and their "Bologna" and "Trento" infantry were desperately unlucky to have been left stranded without water or transport, deep in the southern sector at the Second Battle of El Alamein. Also was the stubborn resistance at the Battle of Keren in East Africa, for which the participating Italian Savoia battalions, Alpini, Bersaglieri and Grenadiers were acknowledged as being equal to the best opposition (i.e. the German parachute division in Italy and the Japanese in Burma) the British had faced during the war.[6][7][8] Later at Kasserine Pass, Mareth, Akarit and Enfidaville, as the North African campaign drew to its close, Italians fought with great courage and determination. In fact, in Tunisia, it was observed by General Alexander that the Italians fought particularly well, outdoing the Germans in line with them.[9] When assessing their resistance in Sicily, and taking into account the massive weight of shot and shell directed against them, together with heavy and interminable air attacks, it is really a wonder that men from the 206th and 207th Coastal Divisions, "Livorno", "Napoli", "Aosta" and "Assietta" Infantry Divisions and several Bersaglieri and tank units were able to resist for so long. Yet they were much maligned by reporters, and the media during the Second World War, and curiously by later generations of writers, and others who, quite simply, have never been in a position to actually verify their stories.

A contrary opinion of the Italian soldiers to that hitherto published in English literature was held by those who fought alongside them; their German allies. The Germans were always ready to blame them for any Axis failure (often unjustifiably) but they nevertheless widely praised their bravery.[10] Interestingly, the accounts from British military personnel also tend to be positive in this regard.[citation needed] The few historians who have investigated the involvement of Italians during the second world war in some detail have learnt that, for example, their artillery gunners would often serve their obsolescent guns until they were literally overrun.[11]

The following passage from Iron Hulls, Iron Hearts provide a poignant example (in reference to the situation at El Alamein) that should go some way in dispelling the myth of Italian Cowardice:

....it is perhaps simplest to ask who is the most courageous in the following situations: the Italian carristi, who goes into battle in an obsolete M14 tank against superior enemy amour and anti-tank guns, knowing they can easily penetrate his flimsy protection at a range where his own small gun will have little effect; the German panzer soldier or British tanker who goes into battle in a Panzer IV Special or Sherman respectively against equivalent enemy opposition knowing that he can at least trade blows with them on equal terms; the British tanker who goes into battle in a Sherman against inferior Italian armour and anti-tank guns, knowing confidently that he can destroy them at ranges where they cannot touch him. It would seem clear that, in terms of their motto Ferrea Mole, Ferreo Cuore, the Italian carristi really had "iron hearts", even though as the war went on their "iron hulls" increasingly let them down.[12]

Nearly 4 million Italians served in the Italian Army during the Second World War and nearly half a million Italians (including civilians) died between June 1940 and May 1945.

The Regio Esercito suffered 161,729 casualties between June 10, 1940 and September 8, 1943 in the war against the Allies, and 18,655 casualties in Italy plus 54,622 casualties in the rest of Europe in September/October 1943 against the German Army after the Italian Armistice.

There were even 12,000 casualties in the northern Italian guerrilla war (Guerra di Liberazione) and in the "Army of Badoglio" on the side of the Allies. In the fascist Army of Mussolini's Italian Social Republic (Repubblica Sociale Italiana, or RSI there were 45,424 casualties (many of them resulting from executions for political reasons after April 1945).[1]

Nearly 60,000 Italian POWs died in Nazi concentration camps, while nearly 20,000 perished in Allied concentration camps (mainly Russian: 1/4 of the 84,830 Italians officially lost in the Soviet Union were taken prisoners, and most of them never returned home).

[edit] Command structure

The Armed Forces of Italy are under the command of the Italian Supreme Defense Council, presided over by the President of the Italian Republic. The Italian Army is commanded by the SME or “Stato Maggiore dell’Esercito” (Chief of the Army General Staff) in Rome. The Chief of staff has direct control of all support and logistics operations in Italy (i.e. military clinics, repair facilities, acquisitions,…), but no direct control of the operational forces, which are all assigned to and commanded by COMFOTER: “Comando delle Forze Operative Terrestri” (Command of Operational Land Forces).

[edit] Operational forces

See also: List of active units of the Italian Army

COMFOTER has direct command on a NATO rapid reaction Corps Command (NRDC-IT), of four support brigades (Artillery, Air Defense, Logistics, Engineering), as well as command of the Army Aviation, the Army Communication and Transmission command and of three commands called COMFOD 1, COMFOD 2 and COMALP, which between them command the actual 11 Italian combat Brigades. The attached units are in detail:

Structure of the Italian Army (click to enlarge).
Structure of the Italian Army (click to enlarge).

[edit] NRDC-IT

The NRDC or "NATO Rapid Deployable Corps" is located in Solbiate Olona and has a support brigade at its dependency, formed by:

  • Support Brigade in Solbiate Olona (Lombardy)
    • 1° Signal Regiment in Milan (Lombardy)
    • (33°) Logistic Support Regiment in Solbiate Olona (Lombardy)

[edit] COMALP

Alpini from the Taurinense Brigade.
Alpini from the Taurinense Brigade.

“Comando Truppe Alpine” (Alpine Troops Command) or COMALP has command over the professional Mountain Troops of the Italian Army, called "Alpines", in Italian Alpini. It is located in Bolzano and consist of the following units:

[edit] COMFOD 1

NH90 Helicopter of the Italian Army
NH90 Helicopter of the Italian Army

“Comando Forze di Difesa 1” or COMFOD 1 resides in the north-eastern city of Vittorio Veneto (Veneto) and commands the most specialized brigades of the Italian Army:

  • “Mantova” Infantry Division Command (without fixed units)
  • “Ariete” Armored Brigade in Pordenone (Friuli-Venezia Giulia)
    • 4° Tank Regiment in Bellinzago Novarese (Piedmont) with 54 Ariete
    • 32° Tank Regiment in Tauriano (Friuli-Venezia Giulia) with 54 Ariete
    • 132° Tank Regiment in Cordenons (Friuli-Venezia Giulia) with 54 Ariete
    • 3° Bersaglieri mechanized Infantry Regiment in Milan (Lombardy) with 59 VCC (M113 improved)
    • 11° Bersaglieri mechanized Infantry Regiment in Orcenigo Superiore (Friuli-Venezia Giulia) with 59 Dardo
    • 132° Self Propelled Artillery Rgt. “Ariete” in Maniago (Friuli-Venezia Giulia) with 32 M109/L, which will be replaced within 2008 by the PzH 2000
    • 10° Engineer Regiment in Cremona (Lombardy)
    • "Ariete" Combat Service Support Battalion in Pordenone

[edit] COMFOD 2

“Comando Forze di Difesa 2” or COMFOD 2 resides in S. Giorgio a Cremano near Naples and commands 5 brigades. Three of those, the brigades “Aosta”, “Pinerolo” and “Granatieri di Sardegna” are made up of one year volunteers and therefore intended for use mainly on Italian soil. The COMFOD 2 commands:

  • “Acqui” Division Command (without fixed units)
  • "Acqui" Combat Service Support Battalion in Naples
  • “Garibaldi” Bersaglieri Mechanized Brigade in Caserta (Campania)
    • 131° Tank Regiment in Persano (Campania) with 54 Leopard 1
    • 19 °Cavalry Regiment “Cavalleggeri Guide” in Salerno (Campania) with 50 Centauro and 33 Puma 4x4
    • 1° Bersaglieri Regiment in Cosenza (Calabria) with 59 Dardo
    • 8° Bersaglieri Regiment in Caserta (Campania) with 59 Dardo
    • 8° Self propelled Artillery Regiment “Pasubio” in Persano (Campania) with 24 M109/L, which are currently being replaced by the PzH 2000
    • 21° Engineer Regiment in Caserta (Campania)
    • "Garibaldi" Combat Service Support Battalion in Caserta
Soldiers of the 8° Cavalry Regiment “Lancieri di Montebello”
Soldiers of the 8° Cavalry Regiment “Lancieri di Montebello”
Soldiers of the 6° Cavalry Regiment “Lancieri di Aosta”
Soldiers of the 6° Cavalry Regiment “Lancieri di Aosta”
Soldiers of the Sassari Brigade
Soldiers of the Sassari Brigade
  • “Granatieri di Sardegna” Mechanized Brigade in Rome (Lazio)
    • 1° “Granatieri di Sardegna” Mechanized Infantry Regiment in Rome (Lazio) with 41 Puma 6x6
    • 8° Cavalry Regiment “Lancieri di Montebello” in Rome (Lazio) with 50 Centauro and 33 Puma 4x4
    • 33° Self propelled Artillery Regiment “Acqui” in l'Aquila (Abruzzi) with 24 M109/L
    • "Granatieri di Sardegna" Combat Service Support Battalion in Rome
  • “Pinerolo” Mechanized Brigade in Bari (Apulia)
    • 31° Tank Regiment (Battle lab) in Altamura (Apulia)
    • 7° Bersaglieri Regiment in Bari (Apulia) with 59 VCC (M113 improved)
    • 9° Infantry Regiment “Bari” in Trani (Apulia) with 59 VCC (M113 improved)
    • 82° Infantry Regiment “Torino” in Barletta (Apulia) with 59 VCC (M113 improved)
    • 21° Self propelled Artillery Regiment “Trieste” in Foggia (Apulia) with 24 M109/L
    • 11° Engineer Regiment in Foggia (Apulia)
    • "Pinerolo" Combat Service Support Battalion in Bari
  • “Aosta” Mechanized Brigade Messina (Sicily)
    • 6° Cavalry Regiment “Lancieri d’Aosta” in Palermo (Sicily) with 50 Centauro and 33 Puma 4x4
    • 6° Bersaglieri Regiment in Trapani (Sicily) with 59 VCC (M113 improved)
    • 5° Infantry Regiment “Aosta” in Messina (Sicily) with 59 VCC (M113 improved)
    • 62° Infantry Regiment “Sicilia” in Catania (Sicily) with 59 VCC (M113 improved)
    • 24° Self propelled Artillery Regiment “Peloritani” in Messina (Sicily) with 24 M109/L
    • 4° Engineer Regiment in Palermo (Sicily)
    • "Aosta" Combat Service Support Battalion in Messina
  • “Sassari” Mechanized Brigade in Sassari (Sardinia)
    • 151° Infantry Regiment “Sassari” in Cagliari (Sardinia) with 59 VCC (M113 improved)
    • 152° Infantry Regiment “Sassari” in Sassari (Sardinia) with 59 VCC (M113 improved)
    • 5° Engineer Regiment in Macomer (Sardinia)

[edit] CoTIE

“Comando Trasmissioni e ed Informazioni dell’Esercito” or CoTIE is the Italian Army’s Signal and Information Command, it resides in Anzio (Lazio) and consists of the following units:

  • Signal Brigade for Maneuver Support
    • 2° Signal Regiment (Alpini) in Bolzano with the Battalions:
    • 7° Signal Regiment in Sacile with the Battalions:
      • "Rolle"
      • "Predil"
    • 11° Signal Regiment in Civitavecchia (Lazio) with the Battalions:
      • "Leonessa"
      • "Tonale"
    • 232° Signal Regiment in Avellino (Campania) with the Battalion:
      • "Fadalto".
  • Signal Brigade for National Support
    • 3° Signal Regiment in Rome (Lazio) with the Battalions:
      • "Lanciano"
      • "Abetone"
      • "Gennargentu".
    • 32° Signal Regiment in Padova (Veneto) with the Battalions :
      • "Valles"
      • "Frejus".
    • 46° Signal Regiment in Palermo (Sicily) with the Battalions:
      • "Mongibello"
      • "Vulture".
  • C4-IEW ISTAR/C4 development and integration Brigade
    • RSISC4 regiment in Treviso (Veneto)

[edit] Army Aviation Command

The Army Aviation Command resides in Viterbo and includes the non combat flying formations of the Army (i.e. Transport Planes, support helicopters,…)

  • Army Aviation Instruction Center in Viterbo
    • 1° Squadron “Auriga” in Viterbo with 6 A129, 6 AB205, 6 AB 212, 6 AB412 and 47 AB 206
    • 2° Squadron “Sestante”
    • 21° Squadron “Orsa Maggiore” in Elmas (Cagliari) with 12 AB 205
  • Army Aviation Brigade
    • 1° Army Aviation Regiment “Antares” in Viterbo (Lazio) with 36 CH-47C "Chinook" and 6 AB412
    • 2° Army Aviation Regiment “Sirio” in Lamezia Terme (Calabria) with 12 AB 212 and 6 AB205
    • 4° Army Aviation Regiment “Altair” in Venaria (Piedmont) and Bolzano with 18 AB 205
    • 28° Army Aviation Squadron “Tucano” in Viterbo (Lazio) with 3 Dornier DO-228 and 3 Piaggio P-180
    • ITALAIR Squadron in Naqoura (Lebanon) with 4 AB 205

[edit] Air Defense Brigade

  • 4° Air Defense Regiment “Peschiera” in Mantova with 30 Hawk surface-to-air missile systems
  • 5° Air Defense Regiment “Pescara” in Rovigo with 30 Hawk surface-to-air missile systems
  • 17° Air Defense Regiment “Sforzesca” in Sabaudia with Skyguard "Aspide", SIDAM 25 and Stinger (2 Battalions)
  • 121° Air Defense Regiment “Ravenna” in Bologna with Skyguard "Aspide", SIDAM 25 and Stinger

[edit] Field Artillery Brigade

[edit] Engineering Brigade

  • 2° Bridge Engineers Regiment in Piacenza
  • 6° Pioneer Engineers Regiment in Rome
  • Railway Engineers Regiment in Castel Maggiore (near Bologna; 2 Battalions)

[edit] Logistics Brigade

  • 1° Maneuver Logistics Regiment in Rivoli
  • 6° Maneuver Logistics Regiment in Pisa (Tuscany)
  • 10° Maneuver Logistics Regiment in Persano (Campania)
  • 24° Maneuver Logistics Regiment (Alpini) “btg Dolomiti” in Merano (South Tyrol)
  • 1° Transport Regiment in Bellinzago Novarese
  • 6° Transport Regiment in Budrio
  • 8° Transport Regiment in Orzano
  • 10° Transport Regiment in Bari (Apulia)

[edit] Support units

The following support units are not under the command of COMFOTER and their role is exclusively the support of units on Italian soil. They are commanded by various sub staffs of the SME- Army General Staff in Rome.

  • Training Brigade in Capua
    • 17° Infantry Regiment “Acqui” in Capua
    • 47° Infantry Regiment “Ferrara” in Capua
    • 57° Infantry Battalion “Abruzzi” in Sora
    • 80° Infantry Regiment “Roma” in Cassino
    • 85° Infantry Regiment “Verona” in Montorio Veronese
    • 91° Training Battalion “Lucania” in Potenza
    • 123° Infantry Regiment “Chieti” in Chieti
    • 235° Infantry Regiment “Piceno” in Ascoli Piceno
  • other Training units:
    • 1° Tank Regiment in Capo Teulada (Sardinia)
  • Technical Support and Logistics units:
    • Military Region North
    • Military Region South
      • 44° Signal Support Regiment in Rome
      • 1° Army Aviation Support Regiment “Idra” in Bracciano
      • 4° Army Aviation Support Regiment “Scorpione” in Viterbo
  • Others
    • 8° Transport Regiment “Casilina”
    • 11° Transport Battalion “Flaminia”
    • 57° Infantry Battalion “Abruzzi” in Rome

[edit] Effective operational capability

Collar patches worn by soldiers of the Italian Army.
Collar patches worn by soldiers of the Italian Army.

All brigades may be deployed outside Italy and are often involved in peace-keeping operations on foreign soil. The brigades are combat brigades, numbering between 3-7,000 troops each. These units are the pride of the Italian Army and are a front-line well-equipped force capable of dealing with most emergency situations. They are characterised by quality, efficiency, motivation and mobility. In total numbers the Italian Army can field about 85,000 ground troops out of a total Army strength of 112,000 men and women.

Units designated as regiments are large battalions which consist of a large Command, Logistics, and Support Company plus a combat battalion, which, in the case of the infantry (Alpini, Bersaglieri, Granatieri, Lagunari, Infantry) units, consists of:

3 or 4 Infantry Companies
1 Mortar/Weapons Company
1 Antitank Company

The naming has historical reasons. Most regiments are deployed singularly, especially the support brigades' regiments as adjuncts to combat units, formed for the task ahead.

[edit] Equipment

[edit] Weapons

[edit] Combat vehicles

Ariete
Ariete
Freccia
Freccia

[edit] Artillery

[edit] Aircraft inventory

PzH 2000
PzH 2000
MLRS
MLRS
A129 Mangusta
A129 Mangusta

The Italian Army operates 484 aircraft, including 471 helicopters.

Aircraft Origin Type Versions In service[13] Notes
Agusta A129 Mangusta Flag of Italy Italy attack helicopter CBT 60
Agusta A109 Flag of Italy Italy utility helicopter A109EOA 25
Bell 205 Flag of the United States United States utility helicopter AB 205A 89 built by Agusta
Bell 206 Flag of the United States United States utility helicopter AB 206A
AB 206B
56		 built by Agusta
Bell 212 Flag of the United States United States transport helicopter AB 212 12 built by Agusta
Bell 412 Flag of the United States United States transport helicopter AB 412 23 built by Agusta
Boeing CH-47 Chinook Flag of the United States United States transport helicopter CH-47C 36 built by Agusta
NHI NH90 Flag of Europe European Union transport helicopter TTH 60
Dornier Do 228 Flag of Germany Germany utility transport Do 228-200 3
Piaggio P180 Avanti Flag of Italy Italy utility transport P.180 M 3

[edit] Operations

A post-World War II peace treaty signed by Italy prevented the country from deploying military forces in overseas operations as well as possessing fixed-wing vessel-based aircraft for twenty-five years following the end of the war.

This treaty expired in 1970, but it would not be until 1982 that Italy first deployed troops on foreign soil, with a peacekeeping contingent being dispatched to Beirut following a United Nations request for troops. Since the 1980s, Italian troops have participated with other Western countries in peacekeeping operations across the world, especially in Africa, Balkan Peninsula and the Middle East.

As of yet, the Italian Army has not engaged in major combat operations since World War II; though Italian Special Forces have taken part in anti-Taliban operations in Afghanistan as part of Task Force 'Nibbio'. Italy was not yet a member of the United Nations in 1950, when that organization went to war with North Korea.

Italy did take part in the 1990-91 Gulf War but solely through the deployment of eight Italian Air Force Panavia Tornado IDS bomber jets to Saudi Arabia; Italian Army troops were subsequently deployed to assist Kurdish refugees in northern Iraq following the conflict.

As part of Operation Enduring Freedom in response to the September 11, 2001 attacks, Italy contributed to the international operation in Afghanistan. Italian forces have contributed to ISAF, the NATO force in Afghanistan, and a Provincial reconstruction team and 5 Italian soldiers have died under ISAF. Italy has sent 411 troops, based on one infantry company from the 2nd Alpini Regiment tasked to protect the ISAF HQ, one engineer company, one NBC platoon, one logistic unit, as well as liaison and staff elements integrated into the operation chain of command. Italian forces also command a multinational engineer task force and have deployed a platoon of Italian military police. Three AB 212 helicopters also were deployed to Kabul.

The Italian Army did not take part in combat operations of the 2003 Second Gulf War, dispatching troops only after May 1, 2003 - when major combat operations were declared over by the U.S. President George W. Bush. Subsequently Italian troops arrived in the late summer of 2003, and began patrolling Nasiriyah and the surrounding area. On 26 May, 2006, Italian foreign minister Massimo d'Alema announced that the Italian forces would be reduced to 1,600 by June. As of June 2006 32 Italian troops have been killed in Iraq - with the greatest single loss of life coming on November 12, 2003 - a suicide car bombing of the Italian Carabinieri Corps HQ left a dozen Carabinieri, five Army soldiers, two Italian civilians, and eight Iraqi civilians dead.

As of 2006, Italy ranks third in the world in number of military forces operating in peacekeeping and peace-enforcing scenarios Afghanistan, Kosovo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Lebanon following only the United States and United Kingdom.

A recent law promotes membership of the Italian Army guaranteeing volunteers post-Army careers in the Carabinieri, Italian State Police, Customs Police, State Forestry Department, Fire Department and other state bodies.

[edit] See also

[edit] References

  1. ^ Walker (2003), pp.6-8
  2. ^ Walker (2003), pp.60-61
  3. ^ Walker (2003), p.199
  4. ^ Bierman & Smith (2002), pp.13-14
  5. ^ Walker (2003), pp.11-29
  6. ^ http://www.comandosupremo.com/KerenBattle.html
  7. ^ Mackenzie, Compton (1951). Eastern Epic. Chatto & Windus, London, pp.52-64.
  8. ^ http://ourstory.info/library/4-ww2/Ball/fire03.html#ch5
  9. ^ Bauer (2000), p. 428
  10. ^ Walker (2003), p.199
  11. ^ Bierman & Smith (2002), p.14
  12. ^ Walker (2003), p.199
  13. ^ "World Military Aircraft Inventory", Aerospace Source Book 2007, Aviation Week & Space Technology, January 15, 2007.

[edit] Sources

  • Bierman, John; Smith, Colin [2002] (2003). War without hate : the desert campaign of 1940-1943, New edition, New York: Penguin Books. ISBN 978-0142003947. 
  • Bauer, Eddy; Young, Peter (general editor) [1979] (2000). The History of World War II, Revised edition, London, UK: Orbis Publishing. ISBN 1-85605-552-3. 
  • Garibaldi, Luciano; foreword by Blitzer, Wolf Century of War. Friedman/Fairfax Publishers. New York, 2001 ISBN 1-58663-342-2
  • Paolo Valpolini, 'Restructure aims to meet changing roles,' Jane's Defence Weekly, 11 February 1998, p.22-25
  • Walker, Ian W. (2003). Iron Hulls, Iron Hearts; Mussolini's Elite Armoured Divisions in North Africa. Ramsbury: The Crowood Press. ISBN 1-86126-646-4. 

[edit] External links

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Military of Italy

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