Indian religions

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For religious demographics of the Republic of India, see Religion in India.
Statue of Jina deity Bahubali in Shravanabelagola, Karnataka attracts thousands of devotees.
Statue of Jina deity Bahubali in Shravanabelagola, Karnataka attracts thousands of devotees.

Indian religions are religions that originated in the Indian subcontinent. They are Hinduism, Jainism, Buddhism, Sikhism, and tribal religions. They form a subgroup of the larger class of "Eastern religions". Indian religions have similarities in core beliefs, modes of worship, and associated practices, mainly due to their common history of origin and mutual influence.

Indian religions is thus an umbrella term in the classification of the world's major religious groups, along with the Abrahamic religions and the Far Eastern religions.[1]

The documented history of Indian religions begins with historical Vedic religion, the religious practices of the early Indo-Aryans, which were collected and later redacted into the Vedas, four canonical collections of hymns or mantras. The language used, archaic Sanskrit, also stems from the same period. The period of the advent, spread, and eventual establishment of this religion lasted from 1,500 BCE to about 500 BCE.

The period from 500 BCE onwards marked the beginning of the Upanisadic or Vedantic period. This period heralded the beginning of much of what became classical Hinduism, with the composition of the Upanishads, later the Sanskrit epics, still later followed by the Puranas. In this period Jainism and Buddhism arose from the sramana traditions.

Buddhism was historically founded by Gautama Siddhartha, a Sakya prince-turned-ascetic of Nepal, and was spread beyond India through missionaries. It later experienced a decline in India, but survived in Nepal and Sri Lanka, and remains more widespread in Southeast and East Asia. Jainism is said to have been established by a lineage of 24 enlightened beings culminating with Mahavira.[2]

Classical Hinduism, which arose in the course of the Middle Ages as a result of various influences including a syncretism and cross-pollination of the Sramana and the Vedic/Vedantic traditions, is divided into numerous denominations, primarily Shaivism, Shaktism, Vaishnavism, Smarta and much smaller groups like the conservative Shrauta adhering Brahmins. Hindu reform movements and Ayyavazhi are more recent.

About 90% of Hindus reside in the Republic of India, accounting for 83% of its population.[3]

Sikhism was founded in the 15th century; its founder, Guru Nanak, was born in the town of Talwandi in present day Pakistan.

Contents

[edit] Common traits

Sometimes summarised as "Dharmic" religions or dharmic traditions (even though the meaning of dharma/dhamma differs per religion), Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism share certain key concepts, which are interpreted differently by different groups and individuals.[4][5][6] Common traits can also be observed in both the ritual and the literary sphere. For example, the head-anointing ritual of abhiseka is of importance in three distinct traditions. Other noteworthy rituals are the cremation of the dead, the wearing of vermilion on the head by married women, and various marital rituals. In literature, many classical Hindu narratives have Buddhist or Jain versions.[7] All three traditions have notions of karma, dharma, samsara, moksha and various yogas. Of course, these terms may be perceived differently by different religions. For instance, for a Hindu, dharma is his duty. For a Jain, dharma is his conduct. For a Buddhist, dharma is piety {{reference needed}]. For a Jain, dharma is righteousness. Similarly, for a Hindu, yoga is the cessation of all thought activities of the mind,[8] whereas Jain epistemology sees yoga as the sum total of all the activities of mind, speech and body.

[edit] History

[edit] Prehistory

A Harappan seal excavated at Mohenjo Daro showing a "Pashupati" figure in sitting in what is reminiscent of the padma asana posture (roughly 2000 BC).
A Harappan seal excavated at Mohenjo Daro showing a "Pashupati" figure in sitting in what is reminiscent of the padma asana posture (roughly 2000 BC).

Evidence attesting to prehistoric religion in the Indian subcontinent derives from scattered Mesolithic rock paintings such as at Bhimbetka, depicting dances and rituals. Neolithic agriculturalists inhabiting the Indus River Valley buried their dead in a manner suggestive of spiritual practices that incorporated notions of an afterlife and belief in magic.[9] Other South Asian Stone Age sites, such as the Bhimbetka rock shelters in central Madhya Pradesh and the Kupgal petroglyphs of eastern Karnataka, contain rock art portraying religious rites and evidence of possible ritualised music.[10] The Harappan people of the Indus Valley Civilization, which lasted from 3300–1300 BCE (mature period, 2600-1900 BCE) and was centered around the Indus and Ghaggar-Hakra river valleys, may have worshiped an important mother goddess symbolising fertility,[11] a concept that has recently been challenged.[12] Excavations of Indus Valley Civilization sites show small tablets with animals and altars, indicating rituals associated with animal sacrifice.

[edit] Vedic period

Main article: Historical Vedic religion

The Vedic Period is most significant for the composition of the four Vedas, Brahmanas and the older Upanishads (both discussions on the rituals, mantras and concepts found in the four Vedas), which today are some of the most important canonical texts of Hinduism, and are the source for much of what developed into the core beliefs of Hinduism and related religions.

The Vedas reflect the liturgy and ritual of Late Bronze Age to Early Iron Age Indo-Aryan speaking peoples in India. Religious practices were dominated by the Vedic priesthood administering domestic rituals/rites and solemn sacrifices. The Brahmanas, Aranyakas and some of the older Upanishads (such as BAU, ChU, JUB) are also considered Vedic. Many elements of Vedic religion reach back to early Bronze Age Proto-Indo-Iranian times. The Vedic period is held to have ended around 500 BCE.

Specific rituals and sacrifices of the Vedic religion include:

  • The Soma cult described in the Rigveda, descended from a common Indo-Iranian practice (cf. the Iranian haoma ritual) .
  • Fire rituals, also a common Indo-Iranian practice (See Zoroastrianism):
  • The Darsapaurnamasa, the fortnightly New and Full Moon sacrifice
  • The Caturmasya or seasonal sacrifices (every four months)
  • a large number of sacrifices for special wishes (Kāmyeṣṭi)
  • The Ashvamedha or horse sacrifice.
  • The Purushamedha, or sacrifice of a man, imitating that of the cosmic Purusha and Ashvamedha
  • The rites referred to in the Atharvaveda are concerned with medicine and healing practices, as well as some charms and sorcery (white and black magic).
  • The domestic (grihya) rituals deal with the rites of passage from conception to death and beyond.

[edit] Vedanta

Main article: Vedanta

The period of Vedanta (Sanskrit : end of Vedas), typically thought to have begun around 500 BCE, marked the end of the evolution of the Vedas, much as it also marked the end of the semi-nomadic nature of the Indo-Aryan tribes as they formed permanent settlements in the Indo-Gangetic plain and other parts of Northern India. This period began in earnest with the Brahmana discussions on the four canonical Vedas that finally led to the Upanishads. While the ritualistic status of the four Vedas remained undiminished, the early Upanishads sought to offer spiritual insights. At this time, the combination of the concepts of reincarnation, the innovative one of karma and of moksha, among many others. These were to form the core philosophy of the later epics and Hinduism itself.

[edit] The Shramana tradition

Main article: Shramana

The Shramanas were wandering ascetics. Buddhism and Jainism are a continuation of the Sramana tradition.[13] The 24th Jain Tirthankar, Mahavira (599–527 BCE), stressed five vows, including ahimsa (non-violence), satya (truthfulness), asteya (non-stealing) and aparigraha (non-attachment). The historical Gautama Buddha, who founded Buddhism, was born into the Shakya clan just before the kingdom of Magadha (which lasted from 546–324 BCE) rose to power. His family was native to Kapilavastu and Lumbini, in what is now southern Nepal. The Ajivikas and Samkhyas belonged to another sramana tradtion, both of which did not survive.

[edit] Rise and spread of Jainism and Buddhism

Main articles: Buddhism in India, Silk Road transmission of Buddhism, and Greco-Buddhism
Main article: Jain community
Further information: Mauryan period and Gupta period

Both Jainism and Buddhism in their present form, spread throughout India during the period of the Magadha empire.

According to the Mahavamsa, Jainism was present in Sri Lanka before the arrival of Thera Mahinda.[14] Early Tamil Brahmi Jain inscriptions in Tamil Nadu are dated to second century BCE.[15] Jainism has declined since the 12th century in many regions, but continues to be an influential religion in Gujarat, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra and Karnataka.

Buddhism in India spread during the reign of Asoka the Great of the Mauryan Empire, who patronised Buddhist teachings and unified the Indian subcontinent in the 3rd century BCE. He sent missionaries abroad, allowing Buddhism to spread across Asia.[16] Indian Buddhism started declining following the rise of Puranic Hinduism during the Gupta dynasty, but continued to have a significant presence in some regions of India until the 12th century.

[edit] Period after 200 BCE

Main articles: decline of Buddhism in India, Hindu philosophy, and Pala Empire
Further information: Puranas

After 200 CE several schools of thought were formally codified in Indian philosophy, including Samkhya, Yoga, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Purva-Mimamsa and Vedanta.[17] Hinduism, otherwise a highly polytheistic, pantheistic or monotheistic religion, also tolerated atheistic schools; the thoroughly materialistic and anti-religious philosophical Cārvāka school that originated around the 6th century BCE is the most explicitly atheistic school of Indian philosophy. Cārvāka is classified as a nastika ("heterodox") system; it is not included among the six schools of Hinduism generally regarded as orthodox. It is noteworthy as evidence of a materialistic movement within Hinduism.[18] Our understanding of Cārvāka philosophy is fragmentary, based largely on criticism of the ideas by other schools, and it is no longer a living tradition.[19] Other Indian philosophies generally regarded as atheistic include Classical Samkhya and Purva Mimamsa.

Between 400 CE and 1000 CE Hinduism expanded as the decline of Buddhism in India continued.[20] Buddhism subsequently became effectively extinct in India. but survived in Nepal and Sri Lanka.

[edit] Modern India

Main articles: Religion in India, Hindu reform movements, Hindutva, and Communalism (South Asia)

Communalism has played a key role in shaping the religious history of modern India. British India was partitioned along religious lines into two states, the Muslim-majority Dominion of Pakistan (comprising what is now the Islamic Republic of Pakistan and the People's Republic of Bangladesh) and the Hindu majority Union of India (later the Republic of India). The 1947 Partition of India inaugurated rioting among Hindus, Muslims, and Sikhs in Punjab, Bengal, Delhi and other parts of India, and 500,000 died as a result of the violence. The twelve million refugees that moved between the newly founded nations of India and Pakistan composed one of the largest mass migrations in modern history.Δ[›][21] Since its independence, India has periodically witnessed large-scale violence sparked by underlying tensions between sections of its majority Hindu and minority Muslim communities. The Republic of India is secular, though it is often considered a Hindu holy land (punyabhumi), its government recognises no official religion. In recent decades, communal tensions and religion-based politics have become more prominent.[22]

[edit] Astika and Nastika categorization

Further information: Astika, Hindu philosophy, and Buddhism and Hinduism

Astika and nastika are sometimes used to categorise Indian religions. Those religions that believe that God is the central actor in this world are termed as astika. Those religions that do not believe that God is the prime mover and actor are classified as nastika religions. From this point of view the Vedic religion (and Hinduism) is an astika religion, whereas Buddhism and Jainism are nastika religions.

Another definition of the terms astika and nastika, followed by Adi Shankara, classifies religions and persons as astika and nastika according to whether they accept the authority of the main Hindu texts, the Vedas as supreme revealed scriptures, or not. By this definition, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Samkhya, Raja Yoga, Purva Mimamsa and Vedanta are classified as astika schools, while Charvaka is classified as a nastika schools. By this definition, both Buddhism and Jainism are classified as nastika religions since they do not accept the authority of the Vedas.

All three religions, Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism, agree that Jainism, Buddhism and Sikhism (as well as Lingayats) do not accept the authority of the Vedas. Despite a general doctrinal tolerance in the Hindu tradition, history shows instances of hostility against Jains, such as in Tamil Nadu in the 7th century when Hindu Shaiva poets and teachers popularized the notion of Jains (or Samanars in Tamil) as villains opposed to the Shaiva creed. In modern India, Jains share a variety cultural and linguistic affinities with other religious communities.

[edit] Sikhism

Main article: Sikhism
Further information: Sikhism and Jainism and Sikhism and Hinduism

Sikhism originated in fifteenth century Northern India with the teachings of Nanak and nine successive gurus. The principal belief in Sikhism is faith in Vāhigurū— represented by the sacred symbol of ēk ōaṅkār [meaning one god]. Sikhism's traditions and teachings are distinctly associated with the history, society and culture of the Punjab. Adherents of Sikhism are known as Sikhs (students or disciples) and number over 23 million across the world.

Although it began as a relatively neutral faith system that proposed to inculcate the best practices of Hinduism and Islam, over time, its Gurus led followers in various rebellions and battles against the Islamic Mughal rulers of the time, most notably against Aurangzeb.

[edit] Status in India

See also: Legal Status of Jainism as a Distinct Religion

Societally, there is little distinction or separation of class between Hindus, Sikhs, Jains and Buddhists owing to near congruence in beliefs and practices.[23][24] Cross-worship and intermarriages are common.[citation needed]

In an extra-judicial observation, not forming part of the judgment, the Indian Supreme Court observed Sikhism and Jainism to be sub-sects or special faiths within the larger Hindu fold,[25] and that Jainism is a denomination within the Hindu fold.[26] Although the government of British India counted Jains in India as a major religious community right from the first Census conducted in 1873, after independence in 1947 Sikhs and Jains were not treated as national minorities.[27] In 2005 the Supreme Court of India declined to issue a writ of Mandamus granting Jains the status of a religious minority throughout India. The Court however left it to the respective states to decide on the minority status of Jain religion.[28][29]

However, some individual states have over the past few decades differed on whether Jains, Buddhists and Sikhs are religious minorities or not, by either pronouncing judgments or passing legislation. One example is the judgment passed by the Supreme Court in 2006, in a case pertaining to the state of Uttar Pradesh, which declared Jainism to be undisputably distinct from Hinduism, but mentioned that, "The question as to whether the Jains are part of the Hindu religion is open to debate.[30] However, the Supreme Court also noted various court cases that have held Jainism to be a distinct religion.

Another example is the Gujarat Freedom of Religion Bill, that is an amendment to a legislation that sought to define Jains and Buddhists as denominations within Hinduism.[31] Ultimately on July 31, 2007, finding it not in conformity with the concept of freedom of religion as embodied in Article 25 (1) of the Constitution, Governor Nawal Kishore Sharma returned back the Gujarat Freedom of Religion (Amendment) Bill, 2006 citing the widespread protests by the Jains as well as the Supreme Court's extra-judicial observation that Jainism is a "special religion formed on the basis of quintessence of Hindu religion by the Supreme Court"[32]

[edit] See also

[edit] Notes

  1. ^ Adams, C. J., Classification of religions: Geographical, Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2007. Accessed: September 5, 2007
  2. ^ Harry Oldmeadow (2007) Light from the East: Eastern Wisdom for the Modern West, World Wisdom, Inc. ISBN 1933316225 – "Over time, apparent misunderstandings have arisen over the origins of Jainism and relationship with its sister religions of Hinduism and Buddhism. There has been an ongoing debate between Jainism and Vedic Hinduism as to which revelation preceded the other. What is historically known is that there was a tradition along with vedic Hinduism known as Sramana dharma. Essentially, the sramana tradition included it its fold, the Jain and Buddhist traditions, which disagreed with the eternality of the Vedas, the needs for ritual sacrifices and the supremacy of the Brahmins." Page 141
  3. ^ Major Religions of the World Ranked by Number of Adherents. Adherents.com. Retrieved on 2007-07-10.
  4. ^ Frawley, David. From the River of Heaven: Hindu and Vedic Knowledge for the Modern Age. Pg 27. Berkeley, California: Book Passage Press, 1990. ISBN 1878423010.
  5. ^ Encarta encyclopedia [1]"Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism share with Hinduism the concept of dharma along with other key concepts, and the four religions may be said to belong to the dharmic tradition."
  6. ^ Westerlund, David Questioning the Secular State: The Worldwide Resurgence of Religion in Politics page 16 "may provide some possibilities for co-operation with Sikhs, Jains and Buddhists, who like Hindus are regarded as adherents of ‘dharmic' religions."
  7. ^ c.f. Encyclopedia Britannica, s.v. "Jainism > Jainism, Hinduism, and Buddhism"
  8. ^ "yogascittavrttinirodhah" Sutra 1 of Patanjali's Yogadarshana
  9. ^ Heehs 2002, p. 39.
  10. ^ "Ancient Indians made 'rock music'", BBC News, 19 March 2004. Retrieved on 2007-08-07. 
  11. ^ Fowler 1997, p. 90.
  12. ^ Sharri R. Clark, The social lives of figurines : recontextualizing the third millennium BC terracotta figurines from Harappa, Pakistan. PhD dissertation, Harvard 2007
  13. ^ These were not direct outgrowths of Vedism, instead, were concurrent streams of thought in ancient India. S. Cromwell Crawford, review of L. M. Joshi, Brahmanism, Buddhism and Hinduism, Philosophy East and West (1972): "Alongside Brahmanism was the non-Aryan Shramanic culture with its roots going back to prehistoric times."
  14. ^ http://www.lakehouse.lk/budusarana/2006/09/07/Budu23.pdf A comparative study in Jainism and Buddhism, Rohan Jayetilleke, September 07, 2006
  15. ^ Early Tamil Epigraphy. From the Earliest Times to the Sixth Century A.D. by Iravatham Mahadevan; Chennai: A-Cref and the Department of Sanskrit and Indian Studies, Harvard University
  16. ^ Heehs 2002, p. 106.
  17. ^ Radhakrishnan & Moore 1967, p. xviii–xxi.
  18. ^ Radhakrishnan & Moore 1967, p. 227–249.
  19. ^ Chatterjee & Datta 1984, p. 55.
  20. ^ The rise of Buddhism and Jainism. Religion and Ethics—Hinduism: Other religious influences. BBC (26 July 2004). Retrieved on 2007-04-21.
  21. ^ Symonds 1950, p. 74.
  22. ^ Ludden 1996, p. 253.
  23. ^ Governor of Gujarat state, Mr. Naval Kishore "Although for the purpose of many personal laws, Jains and Hindus have been treated alike, it is not because they are denominations of Hinduism,"
  24. ^ Supreme court judicial observation, Dec 2004, Bal Patil vs. Union of India "Sikhs and Jains, in fact, have throughout been treated as part of the wider Hindu community which has different sects, sub-sects, faiths, modes of worship and religious philosophies."
  25. ^ Supreme Court observation, Bal Patil vs. Union of India, Dec 2005 In various codified customary laws like Hindu Marriage Act, Hindu Succession Act, Hindu Adoption and Maintenance Act and other laws of pre and post- Constitution period, the definition of 'Hindu' included all sects and sub-sects of Hindu religions including Sikhs and Jains
  26. ^ Supreme court of India, in the judgement of Bal Patil vs. Union of India, Dec. 2005. The Supreme Court observed in a judgment pertaining to case of Bal Patil vs. Union of India: "Thus, 'Hinduism' can be called a general religion and common faith of India whereas 'Jainism' is a special religion formed on the basis of quintessence of Hindu religion. Jainism places greater emphasis on non-violence ('Ahimsa') and compassion ('Karuna'). Their only difference from Hindus is that Jains do not believe in any creator like God but worship only the perfect human-being whom they called Tirathankar."
  27. ^ [Supreme Court observation, Bal Patil vs. Union of India, Dec 2005 http://www.judis.nic.in/supremecourt/qrydisp.asp?tfnm=27098] The so-called minority communities like Sikhs and Jains were not treated as national minorities at the time of framing the Constitution.
  28. ^ Syed Shahabuddin. "Minority rights are indivisible", The Tribune. 
  29. ^ Supreme court of India, in the judgement of Bal Patil vs. Union of India, Dec. 2005. In an extra-judicial observation not forming part of the judgment the court observed :"Thus, 'Hinduism' can be called a general religion and common faith of India whereas 'Jainism' is a special religion formed on the basis of quintessence of Hindu religion. Jainism places greater emphasis on non-violence ('Ahimsa') and compassion ('Karuna'). Their only difference from Hindus is that Jains do not believe in any creator like God but worship only the perfect human-being whom they called Tirathankar."
  30. ^ (para 25, Committee of Management Kanya Junior High School Bal Vidya Mandir, Etah, U.P. v. Sachiv, U.P. Basic Shiksha Parishad, Allahabad, U.P. and Ors., Per Dalveer Bhandari J., Civil Appeal No. 9595 of 2003, decided On: 21.08.2006, Supreme Court of India) [2]
  31. ^ Gujarat Freedom of religions Act, 2003
  32. ^ The Times of India, 11 Mar, 2008 In his letter dated July 27, 2007 he had said Jainism has been regarded as "special religion formed on the basis of quintessence of Hindu religion by the Supreme Court".

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