Hydrino theory

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Hydrino theory is a colloquial term for a series of statements made by Randell Mills, an American entrepreneur. Mills proposes the existence of orbital states for the electron of a hydrogen atom with enhanced binding energy compared to the hydrogen ground state.^[1] While the existence of such a state under some circumstances may be possible, such a state is unlikely in the environment proposed by Mills.^[2]

Mills says that this work, which he terms "Classical Quantum Mechanics", is entirely based on classical physics, rejecting quantum theory and the associated experimental data. Furthermore, Mills says that, using a catalyst, the electron in a hydrogen atom can reach an energy level below the ground state permitted by quantum mechanics, thereby releasing large amounts of energy — and turning the hydrogen into a "hydrino".^[3]

Mills first put forth his proposition of the hydrino in 1991 to explain the excess heat reported in 1989 by cold fusion experimentalists ^[4]. He has continued to develop his ideas in the form of a now two-thousand page book, The Grand Unified Theory of Classical Quantum Mechanics, which he distributes electronically. ^[4] Mills says he can explain various wide-ranging phenomena in chemistry, quantum mechanics, particle physics, and cosmology with hydrinos.

Mills' work is not accepted by the scientific community, and has been largely ignored by it (as of November 2007, only four papers discussing hydrinos were present in the arXiv physics database, three of which say that hydrinos cannot exist. ^[5] The only peer-reviewed evaluation, published in 2005 by Andreas Rathke of ESA, found "severe inconsistencies" in the theory, including a lack of "solutions that predict the existence of hydrinos". Rathke also noted that Mills' equations are not Lorentz invariant, a requirement of any theory that explains the behavior of particles moving close to the speed of light.^[6] Several scientists have issued informal evaluations of Mills' work, which are almost entirely negative.

In spite of his work's flaws, Mills' company (BlackLight Power, Inc. ^[7]) says it has raised tens of millions of dollars in venture capital. It has also given rise to a subsidiary company (Millsian Inc. ^[8]) which has developed and released a molecular modeling program based on Mills' models.

Contents 1 Mills' ideas 1.1 Atomic physics 1.1.1 Hydrinos 1.2 Collective phenomena, high-energy physics, and cosmology 1.2.1 Superconductivity 1.2.2 Dark matter 1.2.3 The accelerating expansion of the universe 2 Alleged experimental evidence 3 Controversy 3.1 2000 3.2 2002 3.3 2004-2005 3.4 2006-2008 4 External links 4.1 Advocacy 4.2 Critical 4.3 General media 5 References

[edit] Mills' ideas

[edit] Atomic physics

Mills says that the electron is an extended particle which in free space is a flat disk of spinning charge. The magnitude of charge is highest in the center, and falls to zero at the edge. Mills says that the charge distribution holds itself together by achieving a force balance between the magnetic forces that act inwards, and outward centrifugal forces. The virial theorem of classical physics says this is not possible, and observations of electrons likewise invalidate the idea of a non-spherically-symmetric charge distribution.^{[citation needed]}

Mills says that since the charge distribution is continuous, it may be treated as a surface charge, and therefore the field lines due to the charge distribution are normal to the surface. In mainstream classical physics, only a surface charge that is free to move under the influence of any tangential electric field will reach an equilibrium where only the normal component of the electric field remains.^[9].

According to Mills, when an electron is captured by a proton to form a hydrogen atom, it deforms into a spherical shell, called the 'orbitsphere'. Mills says this sphere may act as a 'dynamic resonator cavity', able to absorb or emit discrete frequencies of radiation, giving rise to quantization and the basis for the excited states.

In Mills' model, excited states of the electron are charge density distributions of high and low charge density. These distributions exist on the surface of the orbitsphere, but reflect the spherical harmonics of quantum orbitals.^[10]

In quantum mechanics, the energy states of the hydrogen atom are solutions of the wave equation, and different energy states correspond to different electronic orbitals or distribution functions of the electron's position relative to the proton, which have been observed and are nonspherical (except for the s-orbitals).

[edit] Hydrinos

According to Mills, a specific chemical process he calls "The BlackLight Process" allows the bound electron to fall to an energy state below that of currently accepted quantum theory, at 1/integer that of the ground state radius. These below-ground hydrogen atoms are called 'hydrinos'. The mechanism consists of an energy transfer between a hydrogen atom and a catalyst that is capable of absorbing a certain amount of energy. The total energy Mills says is released for hydrino transitions is large compared to the chemical burning of hydrogen but less than nuclear reactions. Allegedly, limitations on confinement and terrestrial conditions have prevented the achievement of hydrino states below 1/30, which would correspond to an energy release of approximately 15 keV per hydrogen atom. No-one outside Mills' group has been verified to have, or even reported to have, produced 'hydrinos', nor have they been observed to occur naturally.

[edit] Collective phenomena, high-energy physics, and cosmology

[edit] Superconductivity

According to Mills, superconductivity is due to the extended nature of the electron, and in a superconductive lattice, the electrons forms "ribbons" of charge/current. This in contradiction to validated models of superconductivity, such as BCS theory, based on the Cooper pairing of electrons.

[edit] Dark matter

According to Mills, hydrinos are the bulk of dark matter. He says that they do not emit light, unless they are being formed or ionized. Over 90% of the visible universe consists of ordinary hydrogen, and according to this hypothesis the remaining matter in the universe (90% of the total mass of the universe) is hydrogen in stable states below that of the typical ground state. However, dark matter is also collisionless, meaning that dark matter particles do not interact by any means other than gravity or that such interactions are very rare^[11]. This contradicts the properties of hydrinos as proposed by Mills, who says he has produced 'molecular hydrinos' and other chemical compounds containing hydrinos and normal matter.

[edit] The accelerating expansion of the universe

Starting in the 1995 version of his book, Mills says that the universe is accelerating as it expands, taking this idea from cosmology [1]. According to Mills, the universe expands and contracts sinusoidally over billions of years, due to a posited equivalence of matter and spacetime^[12]. The expansion of the Universe has since been found to be accelerating. Mills' model, however, does not agree with other observational evidence, nor does it explain various open questions in the topic of cosmic inflation.

[edit] Alleged experimental evidence

The website of BlackLight Power Inc., founded by Mills to 'develop hydrino technology', says he has produced these phenomena:

• Formation of plasmas in gas cells with input energies far below that required to form such plasmas.
• Spectral lines from gas cell plasmas which match the predictions for hydrino transitions.^[13]
• Detection of excess heat from plasma cells using water bath calorimetry.
• New chemical compounds said to have been formed from hydrino hydrides (ie a hydrino which has captured another electron to form a negative hydride ion) which show unusual properties and structure.
• Molecular 'dihydrino' gas formation and detection.

Mills and collaborators say that only hydrino theory can adequately explain their results. Mainstream scientists have called into question the quality of these experiments, and have determined that the results can be explained by conventional physics.

Šišović et al have reported line broadening that contradicts Mills's models.^[14]

Experiments have demonstrated a radial probability distribution of the bound electron in the hydrogen atom ground state that contradicts the idea of an orbitsphere.^[15] Atomic force microscopy has imaged the electron distribution function of numerous compounds and found it to agree with quantum mechanics, in contradiction to Mills' predictions.

[edit] Controversy

[edit] 2000

In a Space.com article on May 23, Douglas Osheroff, Nobel Prize winner^[16] and professor of physics at Stanford University, is quoted as saying:

[Mills] may be creating compounds with unusual properties. This is obviously a rather clever guy, and he may be onto something, but he seems to think it's more fundamental than it really is.^[17]

Furthermore, Osheroff remained certain that hydrinos were a "crackpot idea".

[edit] 2002

A NASA Institute for Advanced Concepts (NIAC) Phase I study was conducted at Rowan University, led by mechanical engineering professor Anthony Marchese, to investigate the so-called BlackLight Process for use in spacecraft propulsion. The team spent some time replicating results obtained by BlackLight, Inc., such as the observation of line broadening and excess heat (although the final report stated "Additional studies are required to rule out all other possible explanations other than 'excess power' for these observations.").^[18]

On October 27 2002, Bob Park, a professor at the University of Maryland, wrote a follow-up:

Mills has written a 1000 page tome, entitled The Grand Unified Theory of Classical Quantum Mechanics, that takes the reader all the way from hydrinos to antigravity (WN 9 May 97). Fortunately, Aaron Barth (not to be confused with Erik Baard, the Randy Mills apologist), has taken upon himself to look through it, checking for accuracy. Barth is a post doctoral researcher at the Harvard-Smithsonian Institute, and holds a PhD in Astronomy, 1998, from UC, Berkeley. What he found initially were mathematical blunders and unjustified assumptions. To his surprise, however, portions of the book seemed well organized. These, it now turns out, were lifted verbatim from various texts. This has been the object of a great deal of discussion from Mills's Hydrino Study Group. Mills seems not to understand what the fuss is all about.^[19]

[edit] 2004-2005

Andreas Rathke of the European Space Agency published an evaluation that appeared in the New Journal of Physics.^[20][21] He concluded:

We found that CQM is inconsistent and has several serious deficiencies. Amongst these are the failure to reproduce the energy levels of the excited states of the hydrogen atom, and the absence of Lorentz invariance. Most importantly, we found that CQM does not predict the existence of hydrino states!

[edit] 2006-2008

BlackLight Power, Inc. announced it had raised over $50M in venture capital.^[22] As of May 2008, its board members include former Assistant Secretary of Energy Dr. Shelby Brewer and Michael H. Jordan, who has served as CEO of various major corporations including PepsiCo Int'l. Foods and Beverages, Westinghouse Electric Corporation, CBS Corporation, and EDS.^[23]

In June, the subsidiary Molegos, Inc. was formed to market a molecular-modeling software application based on CQM theory. In October 2006, Molegos was renamed to Millsian. On June 14, 2007, Millsian made the beta-version of their molecular modeling software available for download.^[24]

In March and April 2008, Blacklight Power had four UK patent applications relating to models and apparatus based on hydrino theory refused by the UK Intellectual Property Office, partly on the grounds that the hydrino theory was objectively wrong. ^[25]

In a press release issued May 28, 2008, BlackLight Power, Inc. said that they have developed a prototype power system generating 50,000 watts of thermal power on demand.^[26]

[edit] External links

[edit] Advocacy

• Black Light Power, Inc., corporate website.
• Hydrino Study Group (HSG) website

[edit] Critical

• Blacklight power from Bob Park's newsletter What's New, January 13, 2006
• Hydrino rockets, What's New, June 21, 2002
• Patent nonsense, What's New, September 6, 2002
• Hydrinos, What's New, June 6, 2008

[edit] General media

• Hydrogen result causes controversy, from Physics Web, August 5, 2005
• Will BlackLight light up the world?, Kathleen McGinn Spring, Princeton Packet, January 20, 1999
• The Alchemists Of Energy, Forbes Magazine, May 15, 2000. — offers excerpts from Robert L. Park's book Voodoo Science, ISBN 0-19-514710-3
• Academics Question The Science Behind BlackLight Power, Inc., The Harvard Crimson, May 17, 2000
• Blacklight Power gets $50M; but is it profound, or utter nonsense? SiliconBeat, January 4, 2006
• Erik Baard (December 21, 1999). Quantum Leap. The Village Voice.
• Erik Baard (April 25, 2000). The Empire Strikes Back. The Village Voice.
• Alok Jha (November 4, 2005). Fuel's paradise? Power source that turns physics on its head. The Guardian.

[edit] References