Horses in warfare

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A modern-day knight in late medieval style plate armor, demonstrating jousting at a Renaissance Fair.

Horses have been used in human warfare for millennia, probably since the time of domestication of the horse. Horses were specially trained for a variety of military uses, including battle, individual combat, reconnaissance (scouting), transport, and supply. The term war horse usually refers to horses used for fighting, whether as cavalry in battle or in individual combat. The best-known war horse was the destrier, ridden by the knight of the Middle Ages. However, even horses used for purposes other than direct combat played a critically important part of successful military ventures. There are still some uses for horses in the military even in today's modern world.

[edit] Types of horses used in warfare

A fundamental principle of horse conformation is "form to function." Therefore, the type of horse used for various forms of warfare depended on the task at hand. There was a trade-off between speed and protection. Adding weight reduces maximum speed, as is seen today when handicapping modern race horses. Conversely, a warrior or soldier also required some degree of protection from enemy weapons, and an overemphasis on light equipment could easily prove fatal in some situations. In close combat, protection, even though it added weight, was considered to matter more than speed.

Horses used in war also varied in size, depending on the type of work, the weight a horse needed to carry or pull, and the distances traveled. The average horse can carry up to approximately 25% of its body weight.^[1][2] Weight carried affects both speed and endurance. In some cultures, warriors would travel to battle riding a lighter horse of greater speed and endurance, and then switch to a heavier horse, with greater weight-carrying capacity, when wearing heavy armor in actual combat.

Horses used for pulling vehicles varied in size, but also traded off speed for weight and power. A team of two light horses could pull a small war chariot that carried only a driver and a warrior.^[3] On the other hand, supply wagons and other support vehicles needed either heavier horses or a larger number of horses to perform the transportation duties required support military operations.^[4] While all horses can pull more than they can carry, the weight horses can pull varies widely, depending on the build of the horse, the type of vehicle, whether a vehicle rolls on wheels or is simply dragged, whether it is pulled on a good road or in rough terrain, and so on.^[5] In practical terms, a modern heavy draft horse weighing about 2,000 lb (910 kg) can pull somewhere between 1.5 tons and 9 tons, depending on conditions^[5][6][7] For example, a team of two modern draft horses can pull 4,000 lb (1,800 kg) in weight-pull competitions, dragging a unwheeled weighted sled on level dirt for a short distance^[8][9] On the other hand, horses pulling a wheeled vehicle on a paved road can pull between three to eight times their weight.^[10] The method by which a horse was hitched to a vehicle also influenced how much it could pull: Horses could pull greater weight hitched to a vehicle with a horse collar than they could with an ox yoke or a breast collar.^[4]

[edit] Light-weight horses

Light, "oriental" horses such as the ancestors of the modern Arabian, Barb, and Akhal-Teke were used for warfare that required speed, endurance and agility. Such horses ranged from about 13 hands to about 15 hands (52 to 60 in., 1.32 m to 1.51 m)^{[citation needed]}, weighing approximately 800 to 1000 pounds (400 to 500 kg). To move quickly, riders had to use lightweight tack and carry relatively light weapons such as bows, light spears or javelins, or, later, rifles. This was the original horse used for raiding, light cavalry, scouting or reconnaissance, and communications.^[3]

Light horses were used by many cultures, including the Scythians, the Parthians, the Ancient Egyptians, the Mongols, the Arabs, and the American Indians. Throughout the Ancient Near East, because the first domesticated horses were small, light animals, (see domestication of the horse) teams of two or more horses were often used to pull chariots. In the European Middle Ages, the light type of horse became known as a Palfrey. Light horses sometimes carried Dragoons and Mounted infantry, depending on the amount of weight required to be carried by each soldier.

[edit] Medium-weight horses

Japanese samurai fending off invaders of the Mongol invasions of Japan, painted c. 1293 A.D. By this time, a medium-weight horse was used.

Medium-weight horses developed with the needs of most civilizations to pull heavier loads and to carry heavier riders, beginning as early as the Iron Age.^[3] Breeds such as the ancestors of the modern Andalusian, Lipizzan, and the various Warmblood breeds got their start by the need for horses to haul chariots capable of holding more than two people, pull supply wagons, and maneuver various types of weapons, such as horse artillery into place. As light cavalry evolved into heavy cavalry, a larger horse was also needed to carry the increased weight of a more heavily-armed and armored rider. Medium-weight horses had the greatest range in size, from about 14.2 hands to as much as 17 hands (58 in to 68 in, 1.47 m to 1.73 m) weighing approximately 1,000 to 1,500 pounds (500 to 750 kg). They generally were quite agile in combat, though they did not have the raw speed or endurance of a lighter horse. The heavier horses in this class were sometimes called Destriers and may have resembled the modern Friesian or Irish Draught. Horses similar to the modern warmblood often carried European Dragoons and Mounted infantry.

[edit] Heavy-weight horses

Large, heavy horses, weighing from 1,500 to nearly 2,000 pounds (750 to nearly 1,000 kg), the ancestors of today's draft horses, were used, particularly in Europe from the Middle Ages onward. They pulled heavy loads, having the muscle power to pull weapons or supply wagons and to remain calm under fire. Some historians believe they may also have carried the heaviest-armored knights of the European Late Middle Ages,^[11][12] though this claim is disputed.^[13] Breeds at the smaller end of the heavyweight category may have included the ancestors of the Percheron, which are agile for their size and would have been physically able to maneuver in battle.^[14] However, there is considerable dispute if the Destrier class of horse actually included draft types.^[15]

[edit] Other Equids

Horses were not the only equids used to support human warfare. Mules, a hybrid of a horse and a donkey or ass were also commonly used, especially as pack animals and to pull wagons, though occasionally as riding animals.^[16] Mules, as a general rule, are considered both calmer and hardier than horses and so were useful for strenuous, difficult support tasks, particularly hauling food and supplies over difficult terrain. The size of a mule and work to which it was put depended largely on the breeding of the mare that produced the mule. Mules, like horses, could be lightweight, medium weight, or even, when produced from draft horse mares, of moderate heavy weight. Donkeys were often used by non-mounted units to carry gear. (see pack animal)^[17]

[edit] Training and deployment

See also Horse training

The details on various methods of training horses, and war horses in particular, vary as much as the cultures and historical periods that produced them. Horse training methods were commonly passed on through an oral tradition and the number of written treatises on the subject was quite limited until the modern era. The oldest manual on training horse for chariot warfare is the work of the Hittite horsemaster, Kikkuli, who wrote on the subject circa 1350 B.C.^[4] An ancient manual on the subject of training riding horses, particularly for the Ancient Greek cavalry is Hippike On Horsemanship written about 360 B.C. by the Greek cavalry officer Xenophon, an Athenian who later lived in Sparta, where he wrote several works.^[18] One of the earliest texts from Asia was that of Kautilya, written about 323 BC.^[4]

Whether horses were trained for pulling chariots, to be ridden as light cavalry, heavy cavalry, or as the Destrier for the heavily-armoured knight, much training was required to overcome the horse's natural instinct to flee from noise, the smell of blood, and the confusion of combat. Horses had to learn to face weaponry of the enemy and not panic, even if struck, and learn to accept any sudden or unusual movements of their riders when utilizing a weapon or avoiding one. Developing balance and agility was crucial. The origins of the discipline of Dressage came from the need to train horses to move with as much athleticism while carrying a rider as they did when free.

In most cultures, a war horse used as a riding animal was trained to be controlled with limited use of reins, responding primarily to the rider's legs and weight; to develop tolerance for the noises of battle; to become accustomed to any necessary tack and protective armour placed upon it, as well as learn to balance under a rider who would also be laden with weapons and armor. Horses used for chariot warfare were not only trained for combat conditions, but because many chariots were pulled by a team of two to four horses, they also had to learn to work together with other animals in close quarters under chaotic conditions.

In addition, some war horses were trained for specialized uses. A horse used in close combat may have been taught, or at least permitted, to kick, strike and even bite, thus becoming weapons in the extended arsenal of the warriors they carried. Other horses, used for raids or reconnaissance, were taught to remain quiet at all times, to avoid whinnying to other horses or otherwise betraying their presence.

The Haute ecole or "High School" movements of classical dressage taught to the famous Lipizzan horses at the Spanish Riding School in Vienna have their roots in maneuvers needed on the battlefield. However, it must be pointed out that modern airs above the ground were unlikely to have been used in actual combat, as most would have exposed the unprotected underbelly of the horse to the weapons of foot soldiers.^[4]

[edit] Technological innovations

Horses were probably ridden in prehistory before they were driven. However, evidence is scant, mostly consisting of simple images of human figures on horse-like animals drawn on rock or clay.^[19][20] Bridles of various sorts were invented nearly as soon as the horse was domesticated, with bit wear evident on the teeth of horses at the archaeology sites of Botai and Kozhai 1 in northern Kazakhstan, dated about 3500-3000 BC.^[21]

[edit] Harness and vehicles

Main articles: Chariot, Horse collar, and Horse harness

Chariots and archers were weapons of war in Ancient Egypt.

The invention of the wheel was a major technological innovation that gave rise to chariot warfare. Initially, as illustrated by the Standard of Ur, in ancient Sumer, c. 2500 BC, horses were hitched to wheeled carts with a yoke around their necks, in a manner similar to that of oxen.^[4] However, such a design is incompatible with horse anatomy, limiting both the strength and mobility of the horse. Therefore, by the time of the Hyksos invasions of Egypt, c. 1600 BC, horses were pulling chariots with an improved harness design that made use of a breast collar and breeching, which allowed a horse to move faster and pull more weight.^[3][4]

Even after the chariot had become obsolete as a tool of war, there still was a need for technological innovations in pulling technologies as larger horses were needed to pull heavier loads of both supplies and weapons. The invention of the horse collar in China during the 5th century (Southern and Northern Dynasties) allowed horses to pull greater weight than they could when hitched to a vehicle by means of the ox yokes or breast collars used in earlier times.^[22] The horse collar arrived in Europe during the 9th century,^[4] and became widespread throughout Europe by the 12th century.^[23]

[edit] Riding equipment

Main articles: Saddle and Stirrup

Two major innovations that revolutionized the effectiveness of mounted warriors in battle were the saddle and the stirrup.

Haniwa horse statuette, complete with saddle and stirrups, 6th century, Kofun period, Japan. Tokyo National Museum

Riders quickly learned to pad their horse's backs to protect themselves from the horse's spine and withers. Warriors fought on horseback for centuries with little more than a blanket or pad on the horse's back and a rudimentary bridle. To help distribute the rider's weight and protect the horse's back, some cultures created stuffed padding that resembles the panels of today's English saddle.^[12] Both the Scythians and Assyrians used pads with added felt attached with a surcingle or girth around the horse's barrel for increased security and comfort. Xenophon mentioned the use of a padded cloth on cavalry mounts as early as the fourth century B.C.^[18]

The saddle with a solid tree provided a bearing surface to protect the horse from the weight of the rider, but was not widespread until the 2nd century A.D.^[18] However, it made a critical difference, as horses could carry more weight when distributed across a solid saddle tree. A solid tree, the predecessor of today's Western saddle, also allowed a more built up seat to give the rider greater security in the saddle. The Romans are credited with the invention of the solid-treed saddle.^[24]

Arguably one of the most important inventions that made cavalry particularly effective was the stirrup. While a toe loop that held the big toe was used in India possibly as early as 500 B.C.,^[4] then later a single stirrup was used as a mounting aid, the first set of paired stirrups appeared in China about A.D. 322 during the Jin Dynasty.^[25] By the 7th century, thanks primarily to invaders from Central Asia, stirrups spread across Asia to Europe.^[26] The stirrup, which allowed a rider greater leverage with weapons, as well as both increased stability and mobility while mounted, gave nomadic groups such as the Mongols a decisive military advantage.^[4] Use of stirrups was widespread in Europe by the 8th century.^[27] An example of this is the Battle of Hastings in 1066, where Bayeux Tapestry shows the victorious Norman cavalry using stirrups, while the Anglo-Saxons did not.^{[citation needed]}

[edit] History

The "War Panel of the Standard of Ur.

The first archaeological evidence of horses used in warfare was between 4000 and 3000 BC in the steppes of Eurasia, in what today is Ukraine, Hungary and Romania. At that location, not long after domestication of the horse, people began to live together in large fortified towns for protection from horseback-riding raiders.^[24]

Horses were used in warfare from the earliest recorded history. One of the first depictions of equids is the "war panel" of the Standard of Ur, in Sumer, dated c. 2500 B.C., showing horses (or possibly onagers or mules) pulling a four-wheeled wagon.^[28] While the standard does not show horses in actual combat, only pulling wagons, these equids clearly had a role to play in the victory depicted.

[edit] Chariot Warfare

See also: Chariot

The earliest documented examples of horses playing a role in combat were in chariot warfare. Among the first evidence of chariot use are the burials of the Andronovo (Sintashta-Petrovka) culture in modern Russia and Kazakhstan, dated to approximately 2000 BC.^[29] The oldest evidence of what was probably chariot warfare in the Ancient Near East is the Old Hittite Anitta text, of the 18th century BC, which mentioned 40 teams of horses at the siege of Salatiwara.^[30] The Hittites became well known throughout the ancient world for their prowess with the chariot. Widespread use of the chariot in warfare across most of Eurasia coincides approximately with the development of the composite bow, known from c. 1600 BCE. Further improvements in wheels and axles, as well as innovations in weaponry, soon resulted in chariots being driven in battle by Bronze Age societies from China to Egypt.^[21]

The Hyksos invaders brought the chariot to Ancient Egypt in the 16th century B.C. and the Egyptians adopted its use from that time forward.^[3][31][32] The oldest preserved text related to the handling of war horses in the ancient world is the Hittite manual of Kikkuli, which dates to about 1350 BC, and describes the conditioning of chariot horses.^[4][33]

Chariots were used in China as far back as the Shang dynasty (ca. 1600-1050 BC). The earliest evidence of chariot warfare in Asia was shown by ceremonial burials. As had occurred earlier in central Asia, horses and chariots were found entombed with their owners so as to be with them in the next life.^[34]

Descriptions of the tactical role of chariots are rare. The Iliad, possibly referring to Mycenean practices of about 1250 BCE, describes the use of chariots for transporting warriors to and from battle, rather than for actual fighting.^[35] Later, Julius Caesar, invading a cultural backwater in 55 and 54 BCE, saw British charioteers throwing javelins, then leaving their chariots to fight on foot.^[36] Their style of fighting may or may not be typical of other charioteers over the wide expanse of space and time in which chariots were used.

[edit] Cavalry

Main article: Cavalry

Some of the earliest examples of horses being ridden in warfare were archers or spear-throwers mounted on horseback, dating to the reigns of the Assyrian rulers Ashurnasirpal II and Shalmaneser III.^[20] However, these the riders sat far back on their horses, an awkward position for moving quickly, and the horses were usually held by a handler on the ground, keeping the archer free to use the bow. Thus these archers were more a type of mounted infantry than true cavalry.^[18] The Assyrians developed cavalry in response to invasions by nomadic people from the north, such as the Cimmerians, who entered Asia Minor in the 8th century, B.C. and took over parts of Urartu during the reign of Sargon II, approximately 721 B.C.^[3] Mounted warriors such as the Scythians also had an influence on the region in the 7th century B.C.^[37] By the reign of Ashurbanipal in 669 B.C., the Assyrians had learned to sit forward on their horses in the classic position of riding still seen today and could be said to be true light cavalry.^[18] The ancient Greeks used both light horse scouts and heavy cavalry.^{[4][18][3][20]}

Heavy cavalry was believed to have been developed by the Ancient Persians.^[20] By the time of Darius (558-486 B.C.), Persian military tactics evolved to require horses and riders that were completely armored, and a heavier, more muscled horse developed to carry the additional weight.^[3] Later, The ancient Greeks developed a heavy armored cavalry, the most famous units being the companion cavalry of Alexander the Great.^[4] The Chinese of the 4th century BC during the Warring States (403 BC-221 BC) began to use cavalry against rival states,^[38] and in response to nomadic raiders from the north and west, the Chinese of the Han Dynasty (202 BC-220 AD) developed effective mounted units.^[34] The Romans also used heavy cavalry in their armies.

The term cataphract describes some of the tactics, armour and weaponry of mounted units used from the time of the Persians up until the Middle Ages.

[edit] Central Asia and India

See also: History of the horse in South Asia and Mongol military tactics and organization

A Scythian horseman from the general area of the Ili river, Pazyryk, c.300 BCE.

Relations between the steppe nomads and the settled people in and around Central Asia were long marked by conflict.^[39] The nomadic lifestyle was well suited to warfare and the steppe cavalry became some of the most militarily potent peoples in the world, only limited by their frequent lack of internal unity. Periodically great leaders or changing conditions would organize several tribes into to one force, and create an almost unstoppable power. These included the Hun invasion of Europe, the Wu Hu attacks on China and most notably the Mongol conquest of much of Eurasia.^[40]

The literature of ancient India describes numerous Central Asian horse nomads. Some of the earliest references to use of horses in central Asian warfare are Puranic texts, which refer to an invasion of India by the joint cavalry forces of the Sakas, Kambojas, Yavanas, Pahlavas and Paradas, called the "five hordes" (pañca.ganah) or "Kśatriya" hordes (Kśatriya ganah). They captured the throne of Ayudhya by dethroning its Vedic king, Bahu, circa 1600 BCE.^[41][42] Later texts, such as the Mahabharata, written c. 950 BCE, appear to recognize efforts taken to breed war horses, by stating that the horses of the Sindhu and Kamboja regions were of the finest quality, and that the Kambojas, Gandharas and Yavanas were considered expert in fighting from horse.^{[43] [44]}

In technological innovation, an early form of the stirrup is credited to the cultures of India, a toe loop that held the big toe, which may have been in use as early as 500 BC.^[45] Not long after, the cultures of Mesopotamia and Ancient Greece clashed with those of central Asia and India. Herodotus (484 BCE - 425 BCE) wrote that the Gandarian mercenaries of Achaemenids from the twentieth strapy were recruited in the army of emperor Xerxes I (486-465 BCE), which he led against the Greeks.^[46] A century later, the Men of the Mountain Land from north of Kabol-River (possibly the Kamboja cavalry, from south of the Hindu kush near medieval Kohistan), served in the army of Darius III when he fought against Alexander the Great at Arbela in October, 331 BCE.^[47] In battle against Alexander at Massaga in 326 BCE, the Assakenoi forces included 20,000 cavalry.^[48] Later, the cavalry forces of the Shakas, Yavanas, Kambojas, Kiratas, Parasikas and Bahlikas helped Chandragupta Maurya (320 c BCE - 298 c BCE) defeat the ruler of Magadha and placed Chandragupta on the throne, thus laying the foundations of Mauryan Dynasty in Northern India.^[49].

[edit] Islamic world

Battle of Higueruela, 1431. Spanish heavy cavalry fighting the light cavalry Moorish forces of Sultan Muhammed IX of Granada

Muslim warriors conquered North Africa and the Iberian peninsula during the 7th and 8th centuries A.D. Following the Hegira or Hijra of Muhammad in A.D. 622, Islam spread across the known world of the time. By A.D. 630, Muslim influence expanded across the Middle East and into North Africa. By A.D. 711, the light cavalry of Muslim warriors had reached Spain,^[3] and controlled most of the Iberian peninsula by 720. Their mounts were of various oriental types, including both the Arabian horse and the Barb horse of North Africa.

Muslim invaders traveled north from Spain into France, where they were stopped by Charles Martel at the Battle of Tours in A.D. 732. Arabian and other oriental horses captured in the wake of this defeat were crossed with local stock, adding agility to the heavier animals, influencing the development of the Percheron, one of the breeds of horse destined to become the great Destrier of the mounted knight.

[edit] European knights

Main article: Horses in the Middle Ages

Museum Display of knight plate armour and horse barding, c.16th or 17th century. This set may have been designed solely for ceremonial purposes. Full suits of plate armor were rarely used in combat after 1650. Zwinger Museum, Dresden.

Jousting is a sport that evolved out of heavy cavalry practice.

During the Middle Ages in Europe, there were three primary types of horses used in warfare: The Destrier, the Courser, and the Rouncey.^[50] The Rouncey was the everyday horse of a squire or for the mounted man-at-arms, suitable for both general riding and war. The Courser was a strong, fast horse, well-suited to hard warfare, while the more-famous, highly-trained Destrier was reserved for the richest knights and nobility. In later periods it was used predominantly in tournaments. A generic word often used to describe medieval war horses is charger, which appears interchangeable with the other terms.

The Destrier was a horse of somewhat greater height and weight to accommodate heavier armoured knights. For example, the horse ridden by William of Normandy in the Battle of Hastings in 1066 was said to be an Iberian-type animal such as the modern Andalusian, at about 15.2 hands (62 in., 1.57 m) tall.^[51]

Despite the popular image of a European knight on horseback charging into battle, pitched battles were avoided, if at all possible, with most offensive warfare in the early Middle Ages taking the form of sieges,^[52]or swift mounted raids called chevauchées, with the warriors lightly armed on swift horses.^[53]

As time passed, the mounted knight was seen less on the battlefield and more often as a competitor in tournaments: war-game events with stylized pageantry.^[54] Larger horses, possibly as tall as 17 hands (68 in., 1.73 m) and 1,500 pounds (750 kg), with the strength to carry both a knight and stylized plate armour were developed.^[55][56] In addition to height and weight, this type of horse was selected for agility and trainability. The expense of keeping, training and outfitting these specialized horses prevented the majority of the population from owning them.

Stallions were often used as war horses in Europe due to their natural aggression. A thirteenth century work describes destriers "biting and kicking" on the battlefield.^[57] However, the use of mares by European warriors cannot be discounted from literary references,^[57] and mares were the preferred war horse of the Moors, the Islamic invaders who attacked various European nations from A.D. 700 through the 15th century.^[3]

Experts dispute the precise reason for the demise of the armored knight. Some claim the invention of gunpowder and the musket rendered the knight obsolete,^[58] while others date it earlier, to the use of the English longbow, which was introduced into England from Wales in 1250 and used with decisive force in conflicts such as the Battle of Crécy in 1346.^[59] However, other authorities suggest that such new technologies contributed to the development of knights, rather than to their decline. For example, plate armour was first developed to resist the crossbow bolts of the early medieval period,^[60] and the rise of the English longbow during the Hundred Years' War further increased the use and sophistication of plate armour, culminating in the full harness worn by the early 15th century.^[61] Furthermore, from the 14th century on, most plate was made from hardened steel, which could resist early musket ammunition.^[60] Yet, this stronger design did not render the plate increasingly impracticable; a full harness of musket-proof plate from the 17th century weighed 70 lb (32 kg), significantly less than 16th century tournament armour.^[50]

It is most likely that the decline of the knight was brought about by changing structures of armies and various economic factors, rather an obsolescence caused by new technology. By the sixteenth century, the concept of a combined-arms professional army first developed by the Swiss had spread throughout Europe, and was accompanied by improved infantry tactics.^[61] These professional armies placed an emphasis on training and paid contracts, rather than the ransom and pillaging which reimbursed knights in the past. This situation, when coupled with the rising costs involved in outfitting and maintaining knights’ armour and horses, probably led many members of the traditional knightly classes to abandon their profession.^[62]

It is also hard to trace what happened to the bloodlines of destriers, as the type seems to disappear from record during the seventeenth century.^[63] The great horse was both smaller and more agile than the modern draft horse, with breeds such as the Andalusian,^[64] and Friesian^[65] claiming to be the direct descendants of destriers. However, draft horse breeds such as the Belgian, Percheron and Shire horse also claim descent from the horses developed to carry full armour.^[66]

[edit] Renaissance and Early Modern Period

"Napoleon I with his Generals." This painting shows the light cavalry horses used as officer's mounts in 18th and 19th century European warfare.

Native Americans quickly adopted the horse and were highly effective light cavalry. Comanche-Osage fight. George Catlin, 1834

With the development of muskets and other light firearms during the late Middle Ages and Renaissance, light cavalry again became useful for both battles and field communication, using fast, agile horses to move quickly across battlefields. The heavy armored horse of the medieval knight had little use in combat and was relegated to hauling cannons and wagons of supplies.

Horses were particularly useful in the 16th century as a weapon of war for the Conquistadors. When these Spanish warriors came to the Americas and conquered the Aztec and Inca empires, horses and gunpowder provided a crucial edge. Because the horse had been extinct in the Western Hemisphere for approximately 10,000 years, the Indigenous peoples of the Americas had no warfare technologies that could overcome the considerable advantage provided by European horses and weapons. However, the American Indian people quickly learned to use horses, and the tribes of the Great Plains, such as the Comanche and the Cheyenne, became renowned horseback fighters, again demonstrating the efficiency of light cavalry, eventually becoming a considerable problem for the United States Army.

A demonstration of a saber charge by the Horse Cavalry detachment of the U.S. Army's 1st Cavalry, demonstrating many of the tools, weapons and techniques used during the 1880s

[edit] 20th century

Light cavalry was still seen on the battlefield at the beginning of the 20th century. Though formal mounted cavalry began to be phased out as fighting forces during or immediately after World War I, cavalry units that included horses still had military uses well into World War II.^[67] The most famous example was the underequipped Polish army, which used its horse cavalry in World War II to defend Poland against the armies of Nazi Germany during the 1939 invasion. While there is a popular belief that the Polish cavalry engaged in futile charges against tank units, this is a misconception. Two examples illustrate how the myth developed. First, because motorized vehicles were in short supply, the Poles used horses to pull anti-tank weapons into position.^[68] Second, the most famous Polish cavalry charge during World War II was a successful charge against German infantry near the town of Mokra, part of the Battle of Krojanty, on the first day of the war. The Polish cavalry was eventually driven off by Armoured personnel carriers with the loss of 20 soldiers. Nonetheless, Nazi propagandists used the image of dead horses and tanks which arrived after the battle to ridicule the efforts of the Poles.^[69]

Other nations used horses extensively during WWII, though not necessarily in direct combat. The German and the Soviet armies used horses until the end of the war, not only to transport ammunitions and equipment, but also for reconnaissance and counter-insurgency efforts. The British Army used mules in India and Southeast Asia as pack animals.^{[citation needed]} While the United States Army utilized a few cavalry and supply units during the war, there were concerns that in rough terrain, horses were not used often enough. In the campaigns in North Africa, generals such as George S. Patton lamented their lack, saying, "had we possessed an American cavalry division with pack artillery in Tunisia and in Sicily, not a German would have escaped."^[70]

[edit] Horses in the military today

U.S. special forces troops on horseback in Afghanistan, 2001

With the rise of the internal combustion engine, horses in formal national militias were displaced by modern tank warfare, which is sometimes still referred to as "cavalry." Today, formal combat units of mounted cavalry are in almost all cases a thing of the past, with horseback units within the modern military used for reconnaissance, ceremonial, or crowd control purposes. The only remaining fully horse-mounted regular regiment in the world is India's 61st Cavalry.^[71] Organized armed fighters on horseback are occasionally seen, particularly in the third world, though they usually are not officially recognized as part of any national army. The best-known current examples are the Janjaweed, militia groups seen in the Darfur region of Sudan, who became notorious for their attacks upon unarmed civilian populations in the Darfur conflict.^[72]

[edit] Reconnaissance and patrol

Although horses have little combat use today by modern armies, the military of many nations still maintain small numbers of mounted units for certain types of patrol and reconnaissance duties in extremely rugged terrain, including the current conflict in Afghanistan. Hungary, some Commonwealth countries, Balkan countries, and the former Soviet republics of Central Asia maintain cavalry units as part of light infantry and reconnaissance formations for use in mountainous terrain or areas where fuel supply may be difficult.

[edit] Ceremonial and educational uses

Horse Guards in London

Horse Cavalry Detachment of the U.S. Army's 1st Cavalry Division demonstrating a mock cavalry charge at Fort Bliss, Texas

Many countries throughout the world maintain traditionally-trained and historically uniformed cavalry units for ceremonial, exhibition, demonstration or educational purposes. One example is the Horse Cavalry Detachment of the U.S. Army's 1st Cavalry Division.^[73] This unit, made up of active duty soldiers, still functions as an active unit, trained to approximate the weapons, tools, equipment and techniques used by the United States Cavalry in the 1880s.^[74] The horse detachment is headquartered at Fort Hood, Texas and is charged with public relations, change of command ceremonies and public appearances.^[75] A similar detachment is the Governor General's Horse Guards, Canada's Household Cavalry regiment and the last remaining mounted cavalry unit in the Canadian Forces.^[76][77]

[edit] Related modern uses

Today, many of the historical military uses of the horse have evolved into peacetime applications, including exhibitions, historic reenactment, work of peace officers, everyday riding and competitive events.

[edit] Historical reenactment

Main article: Historical reenactment

Horses are trained to be able to reenact historical battle scenes today. Examples include the Battle of Hastings reenactment and assorted American Civil War reenactments. Due to changes between ancient and modern horses, equipment and materials, it is sometimes difficult to create reenactments that are fully authentic with original equipment and horse phenotypes of the represented time. However, to the greatest extent possible, many reenactors attempt to accurately reflect details of equipment, training, weaponry and battlefield conditions.

[edit] Law enforcement and public safety

Mounted policeman in Poznań, Poland

The Police Horse is a fixture in many large cities and in some rural areas, used for patrol, search and rescue and for crowd control. Ceremonial horse guards, often in historical regalia, are seen in some major cities, particularly major European cities such as London, performing traditional sentry and guard duties.

In rural areas, law enforcement that operates outside of incorporated cities, such as the county sheriff in the United States, may have mounted units. Horses are an ordinary means of transportation for police in some countries while also seeing specialized uses in remote areas, such as border patrolling, drug farm searching, search and rescue and recovery of stolen or mistreated livestock.^[78] The U.S. Border partol notes that they can stable 10 horses for the same cost as maintaining one off-road 4x4 truck.^[79] Mounted units include specially deputized, paid or volunteer mounted search and rescue units who are often sent into roadless areas on horseback to locate missing people.^[80] Law enforcement in national parks, national forests, wilderness areas, and other types of wildlife refuge may use horses in areas where mechanized transport is difficult or prohibited. Horses can be an essential part of an overall team effort as they can move faster on the ground than a human on foot, can transport heavy equipment, and provide a more rested rescue worker when a subject is found.^[81]

[edit] Equestrian competition

The modern Olympic disciplines of eventing, show jumping, and dressage all have roots in the skills required of the light cavalry horse of the 17th through 19th centuries. Dressage traces its origins to the works of Xenophon and his works on cavalry training methods, most notably On Horsemanship, but became recognized in its modern form during the Renaissance. Training methods were developed to create a responsive, supple horse that could quickly respond to his rider's commands, as was critical when riding on the dangerous ground of the battlefield. The Spanish Riding School of Vienna, Austria was originally created to train horses and members of the nobility for service in the military, but today is one of the great schools for developing horses and riders in the classical dressage tradition.

Tent Pegging is a modern sport that preserves ancient combat skills. Photo credit: Suresh Sharma

Eventing had a more recent development, first occurring in the late 1800s as a competitive endurance ride that included jumping obstacles. The discipline eventually added a dressage phase, to test the ability of the cavalry mount on the parade ground, the endurance phase, to test the mount's fitness and ability to carry messages across the countryside, traveling quickly over rough terrain, and the stadium jumping phase, as a test to ensure that the mount was still fit enough to continue after the rigors of the endurance competition. It evolved into the modern three-phase competition seen today.

Show jumping, primarily derived from the sports of fox hunting and steeplechasing as well as informal "lepping" competitions between civilian riders, is the farthest removed from direct military applications. However military units also developed jumping skills to cross formidable obstacles, crucial for carrying messages and coordinating troop movements. Leaders in the development of modern riding technique over fences, such as Fredrico Caprilli, came from military ranks.

The Olympic equestrian national teams of the modern Olympics were originally drawn exclusively from the male officer ranks of the military until 1952.^[82] After that time, both civilian and military competitors competed together until most cavalry units were disbanded in the postwar era, and today most team members are drawn almost entirely from civilian ranks. Today, the equestrian events are the only Olympic competition where men and women compete together.

The modern sport of tent pegging is specifically designed to train the horse and its rider in the skills of mounted combat.^[83][84]

[edit] References

[edit] Bibliography

• Anthony, David W. (1998). "The opening of the Eurasian steppe at 2000 BC." In The Bronze Age and Early Iron Age Peoples of Eastern Central Asia, ed. Victor H. Mair, vol. 1. (Journal of Indo-European Studies Monograph 26). Washington, D.C.: The Institute for the Study of Man.
• Bennett, Deb. Conquerors: The Roots of New World Horsemanship. Amigo Publications Inc; 1st edition 1998. ISBN 0-9658533-0-6
• Chamberlin, J. Edward. Horse: How the Horse Has Shaped Civilizations. Bluebridge, 2006, p. 166-167 ISBN 0-9742405-9-1
• Ebrey, Walthall, and Palais (2006). East Asia: A Cultural, Social, and Political History. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company.
• Edwards, Gladys Brown. The Arabian: War Horse to Show Horse. Arabian Horse Association of Southern California, Revised Collector's Edition, Rich Publishing, 1973.
• Needham, Joseph (1986). Science and Civilization in China: Volume 4, Physics and Physical Technology, Part 2, Mechanical Engineering. Taipei: Caves Books Ltd.

[edit] See also

• Kikkuli
• Xenophon
• Arrian
• cavalry
• cavalry tactics
• chariot
• chariot tactics
• Classical dressage
• Equestrianism
• Domestication of the horse
• History of the horse in South Asia
• Horses in the Middle Ages

[edit] External links

• The Institute for Ancient Equestrian Studies (IAES)
• New Riders of the Golden Age Modern performers of authentic full contact jousts on Belgian, Percheron, Shire, and Clydesdale horses.
• The British Cavalry Regiments of 1914-1918 The British Cavalry Regiments of 1914-1918
• The Spanish Mustang Registry (preservers of the warhorse of ancient Spain)
• United States Dressage Federation
• Home Page of the Spanish Riding School of Vienna, where the "high school" art of Dressage preserves the ancient movements and maneuvers of the war horse.
• Manual about horses in the battle of Hastings reenactment
• The Society of the Military Horse

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