Hopewell tradition
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The Hopewell tradition (also incorrectly called the "Hopewell culture") is the term used to describe common aspects of the Native American culture that flourished along rivers in the northeastern and midwestern United States from 200 BC to 400 A.D. The Hopewell tradition was not a single culture or society, but a widely dispersed set of related populations, which were connected by a common network of trade routes[1], known as the Hopewell Exchange System.
At its greatest extent, Hopewell culture stretched from western New York to Missouri and from Wisconsin to Mississippi, and included both the American and Canadian shores of Lake Ontario.
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[edit] Origins
Although the origins of the Hopewell are still under discussion, the Hopewell culture can also be considered a cultural climax.
Hopewell populations originated in western New York and moved south into Ohio where they built upon the local Adena mortuary tradition. Or Hopewell was said to have originated in western Illinois and spread by diffusion - perhaps carried by a religious elite - to southern Ohio. Similarly, the Havana Hopewell tradition was thought to have spread up the Illinois River and into southwestern Michigan, spawning Goodall Hopewell. (Dancey 114)
Aside from the more famous Ohio Hopewell, a number of other Middle Woodland period cultures are known as "Hopewellian," including the Swift Creek culture, 100-500 A.D., the Santa Rosa-Swift Creek culture, 100-300 A.D., the Marksville culture, 1-400 A.D., and the Copena culture, 1-500 A.D.
[edit] Hopewell tradition
The Hopewell tradition is known for its distinct burial ceremonialism, diversified material culture, and most importantly, exchange between other communities. Evidence for exchange can be found in exotic artifacts not native to the Hopewell region. In this exchange network, raw materials, as well as finished products were exported and imported.
It was thought that the distinctive Hopewellian artifacts were crafted specifically for mortuary ritual...however, many of the kinds of artifacts associated with human remains under the mounds were found also in settlement debris. (Dancey 117)
Other features of Hopewell tradition include the predominance of agriculture as opposed to hunting and gathering. Chief crops included squash, sunflowers, and various grasses, though maize, which would later become a dietary staple in the region, was only rarely cultivated. The Hopewell employed native copper, silver, mica, meteoric iron, obsidian and a large variety of exotic materials in their tools, weapons and material goods. Many of the exotic materials utilized by the Hopewell were obtained via a vast network of trade.
[edit] Mounds
Today, the best-known feature of Hopewell culture is the mounds that they built for religious/ burial purposes. It is known to be one of the most considerable achievements of Native Americans throughout the ancient past. These mounds, especially along the Ohio River valley, could take various geometric shapes and rise to impressive heights. Samples of these mounds can still be seen today, especially in the Hopewell Culture National Historical Park in Chillicothe, Ohio. The Rock Eagle and Rock Hawk Effigy Mounds, in Putnam County, Georgia are sometimes attributed to members of the Hopewell tradition or the Adena culture, but may have been created by a distinct group. Determining the function of the mounds is still under debate.
One popular proposition for the shapes of the earthworks is that they were laid out to record astronomical observations, such as the movement of the sun through the seasons, or of the Moon and Venus. (Dancey 123)
Due to lack of evidence and poor condition of the mounds, little more information can be obtained. Bradley T. Lepper, Curator of Archaeology, Ohio Historical Society, has argued that the Octagonal mound complex at Newark, Ohio, is actually a lunar observatory which records the 18.6 year cycle of 'moonrises' and 'moonsets'. William F. Romain, Ph.D. has written a book on the subject and several articles.[2]
Ray Hively and Robert Horn of Earlham College in Richmond, Indiana were the first researchers to accurately analyze calendrical sightlines at the Newark Octagon and the High Bank earthworks in Chillicothe Ohio. These efforts were published in 1982 and 1984 respectively. Christopher S. Turner, presently studying in the anthropology department at Southern Illinois University, was the first (1982) to suggest that the Fairground or Great Circle in Newark Ohio was aligned to the sunrise on May 4, i.e. that it marked the May cross quarter sunrise. Such calendrical divisions separate the year into 8 equal parts. This date was monitored calendrically by the Celts and by the Hopi Indians. The Hopi called it "neverktcomo", while prehistoric Europeans called it Beltane. Indexing of the May cross quarter date is likely related to spring planting decision making. Turner also wrote an unpublished article in 1983 entitled "An Astronomical Interpretation of the Hopeton Earthworks". Hopeton is a geometric earthwork site located in Chillicothe Ohio. These earthworks, Turner found, encode various sunrise and moonrise patterns including the winter and summer solstices, the equinoxes, the cross quarter dates, the lunar maximum events, and the lunar minimum events. The latter moonrise groups occur in an 18.6 year cycle, and the monitoring of them may be indicative of a knowledge of eclipse cycles. Both Hopeton and the High Bank site were purchased by the National Park Service in the 1990s, and they continue to explore these national treasures archaeologically.
There are many ideas about the collapse of the Hopewell tradition. Apparently, they ceased to exist around 400 A.D. Some suggest that probability of their fall was their society dissolved, rather than crashing. Breakdown in societal organization could have been a result of full-scale agriculture. Scholars Dunnell and Greenlee suggest an idea of waste behavior. "They argue that energy was diverted from biological reproduction during a period when climate irregularities favored small families. As climate became predictable from year to year, energy was turned from waste behavior to food production" (Dancey 131). Still, the true reasoning of their evident dispersal is yet to be discovered, and much more knowledge is needed.
Today, the best-known features of the Hopewell tradition are the mounds that were built for religious/ceremonial and burial purposes. It is known to be one of the most considerable achievements of Native Americans throughout the ancient past. These mounds, especially along the Ohio River Valley, could take various geometric shapes and rise to impressive heights. Samples of these mounds can still be seen today, especially in the Hopewell Culture National Historical Park in Chillicothe, Ohio. The Rock Eagle and Rock Hawk Effigy Mounds, in Putnam County, Georgia are sometimes attributed to members of the Hopewell or Adena cultures, but may have been created by a distinct group. Determining the function of the mounds is still under debate.
There are many ideas about the collapse of the Hopewell tradition. Apparently, they ceased to exist around 400 A.D. Some suggest that probability of their fall was their society dissolved, rather than crashing. Breakdown in societal organization could have been a result of full-scale agriculture. Scholars Dunnell and Greenlee suggest an idea of waste behavior. "They argue that energy was diverted from biological reproduction during a period when climate irregularities favored small families. As climate became predictable from year to year, energy was turned from waste behavior to food production" (Dancey 131). Still, the true reasoning of their evident dispersal is yet to be discovered, and much more knowledge is needed.
The Hopewell shared some features with the Mississippian culture that arose c. 900-1000 A.D. in the Eastern United States. It is unclear how much continuity there was between the two cultures.
[edit] See also
- Hopewell Culture National Historical Park
- Hopewell pottery
- Newark Earthworks
- Serpent Mound
- Center for American Archeology
- Mound builder (people)
[edit] References
- ^ Price, Douglas T. and Gary M. Feinman (2008). Images of the Past, 5th edition. New York: McGraw-Hill, 274-277. ISBN 978-0-07-340520-9.
- ^ Newark Earthwork Cosmology.
- Dancey, William. “The Enigmatic Hopewell of the Eastern Woodlands.” North American Archaeology. Ed. Timothy R. Pauketat and Diana Dipaolo Loren. Malden: Blackwell Publishing Ltd., 2005. 108-137.
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