History of Istanbul

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The History of Istanbul explains the historical development of the city Istanbul, which has been inhabited since prehistorical times.

[edit] From the prehistorical period to the foundation of Byzantion

The first human settlement in what is now Istanbul, the Fikirtepe mound on the Anatolian (Turkish) side, is from the Chalcolithic period (Copper Age), with artifacts dating from 5500-3500 BC. In nearby Kadıköy (Chalcedon), a large port settlement dating from the Phoenicians has been discovered. Cape Moda in Chalcedon was the first location which Greek settlers from Megara (near Athens) chose to colonize, in 685 BC. Thracian tribes had earlier built a port settlement called Lygos and a nearby village called Semistra at the Seraglio Point, on the European side of the Bosphorus, between the 13th and 11th centuries BC;^[1] and it was on the site of Lygos that the Megaran King Byzas founded Byzantion in 667 BC. Plinius mentions Lygos in his books of history. Only a few walls and substructures belonging to Lygos have survived to the present. They are near the Seraglio Point (Turkish: Sarayburnu, meaning Cape of the Seraglio), where the famous Topkapı Palace now stands. During the period of Byzantion, the Acropolis stood where the Topkapı Palace stands today.

[edit] Byzantion (Byzantium)

Main article: Byzantium

Byzantion (Latin: Byzantium) was originally settled by Greek colonists from Megara in 667 BC and named after King Byzas. The city was established in the Sarayburnu area.^[2] After siding with Pescennius Niger against the victorious Septimius Severus the city was besieged by Rome and suffered extensive damage in AD 196. Byzantium was rebuilt by the Roman Emperor Septimius Severus and quickly regained its previous prosperity, being temporarily renamed as Augusta Antonina by the emperor, in honor of his son.

[edit] Late Roman period and the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire

Main article: Constantinople

An artist's impression of Constantinople

The location of Byzantium attracted Constantine the Great in 324 after a prophetic dream was said to have identified the location of the city; but the true reason behind this prophecy was probably Constantine's final victory over Licinius at the Battle of Chrysopolis (Üsküdar) on the Bosphorus, on September 18, 324, which ended the civil war between the Roman Co-Emperors, and brought an end to the final vestiges of the Tetrarchy system, during which Nicomedia (present-day İzmit, 100 km east of Istanbul) was the most senior Roman capital city. Byzantium (now renamed as Nova Roma which eventually became Constantinopolis, i.e. The City of Constantine) was officially proclaimed the new capital of the Roman Empire in 330. Following the death of Theodosius I in 395 and the permanent partition of the Roman Empire between his two sons, Constantinople became the capital of the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire. The combination of imperialism and location would play an important role as the crossing point between two continents (Europe and Asia), and later a magnet for Africa and others as well, in terms of commerce, culture, diplomacy, and strategy. It was the center of the Greek world and for most of the Byzantine period, the largest city in Europe.

Constantine’s conversion to Christianity a few years earlier, in 312, had set the Roman Empire onto Christianization, and in 381, during the reign of Theodosius I, the official state religion of the Roman Empire became Christianity, which transitioned the position of Constantinople into a thriving religious center.^[3] After the end of his reign in 337, Constantine declared his three sons as joint heirs of the Roman Empire in a system of co-emperorship.^[4] Unfortunately, the sons couldn’t govern together peacefully and their war raged rivalry split the empire on the north-south line along the Balkan Peninsula. The territory was officially split in 395 when Theodosius I (ruled, 379-395) died leaving his son Arcadius emperor of the eastern half of the empire and his other son Honorius emperor of the western half.^[5]

Around the year 500 the western half of the Roman Empire lost most of its power through decline in political, economic and social situations; the eastern half, however, was flourishing. According to historians this flourishing Eastern Roman Empire was then classified as the Byzantine Empire to distinguish it from the Roman Empire.^[6] This empire was distinctly Greek in culture, and became the centre of Greek Orthodox Christianity after an earlier split with Rome, and was adorned with many magnificent churches, including Hagia Sophia, once the world's largest cathedral. The seat of the Patriarch of Constantinople, spiritual leader of the Eastern Orthodox Church, remains.

The most famous Byzantine emperor was Justinian (527-565). During his reign he extended the Byzantine Empire to its largest boundaries spreading from Palestine to the tip of Spain. His other achievements include the famous Hagia Sophia church and the organized law system called the Codex which was completed in 534.^[7] However, Justinian’s reign was the greatest influence of the Byzantine Empire.

Starting in the 600’s warfare kept Constantinople’s power flip-flopping between decline and progression. Alliance with Europe slowly began to break away from the Byzantine Empire between the seventh-eighth centuries when the Byzantine and Roman churches disagreed on various subjects. However, the distinguishing gap placed between the two churches involved the use of icons in the church. Icons, being images of Christian holy people such as Jesus Christ, the Virgin Mary and the saints, to Byzantine Christians were more than representations they were believed to possess holy power that affected people’s daily lives^[8] While many Byzantines worshiped icons many opposed the icons because they tested the authorities of the emperor. Finally in 726, Emperor Leo III (ruled, 717-741) ordered all icons to be destroyed. The destruction of icons reorganized and reoriented the Byzantine rulers in imperial power.^[9] The fierce opposition to icons clashed with the pope’s tolerance of images. The papacy was unwilling to permit sacred images and icons to be destroyed and caused eventual separation.^[10] There separation caused hatred between the two churches and cooperation between the two was a struggle.

Near 1204 Constantinople began to decline in power. Due to the failure of the Third Crusade, self confident western Europeans decided to again try to capture the Holy City of Jerusalem in the Fourth Crusade; but this time their plan was to capture the Byzantine Empire as well. In 1204, western armies captured Constantinople and ransacked the city for treasures.^[11] The pope decried the sacking of Constantinople but ordered the crusaders to consolidate their gains in they city for a year. The crusaders chose Baldwin of Flanders to be the new Byzantine Emperor; he along with other princes and the Venetians divided the Empire amongst themselves; they never made it to Jerusalem.^[12] This new Latin Empire at Constantinople lasted until 1261, when the Byzantines under the command of Michael VIII Palaeologus recaptured the city and some outlaying territory.^[13] After this, Constantinople never regained its former glory. Rather than a thriving metropolis, Constantinople transformed into a collection of villages.

[edit] Ottoman Empire

Main articles: Ottoman Empire and Fall of Constantinople

Panoramic view of the city in the 1870s as seen from Galata Tower

On 29 May 1453, Sultan Mehmet II “the Conqueror”, entered Constantinople after a 53–day siege during which his cannon had torn a huge hole in the Walls of Theodosius II. Istanbul became the third capital of the Ottoman Empire.

Sultan Mehmed began his conquest on April 6, 1453. He gave the Byzantine emperor Constantine Palaeologus (1449-1453) three chances to surrender the city as is part of the Muslim Holy Law (called the Shariah).^[14] Mehmed guaranteed the emperors residents, including their riches, beliefs and honor, would be safe. Unfortunately for the Byzantine Empire, Constantine did not take the deal.^[15]

Things were looking bright for Constantinople for a while. After more than a month of fighting, Mehmed’s advisors were beginning to lose hope, so against their counsel, Mehmed continued to fight. The night before the big battle he studied the previous attempts to take the city. He was comparing ways that would work and where that would not. Mehmed had hired engineers to build canons and bombs for the occasion. But, his success was not based on sheer force; he was very intelligent and acquired the presence of scholars and imams to encourage the soldiers. On the morning of May 29, 1453 the sultan ordered the call of Azan (call to prayer).^[16]

This was not a regular prayer session for religious reasons but rather a scare tactic. When the Byzantine forces saw the entire Ottoman army get on their knees to pray, the Byzantine army was witnessing how united the Ottomans were and this worried them. In a way, “their minds were defeated before their bodies.”^[17]

Once the fighting started, it went on for forty-eight days. The wall was beginning to collapse when Constantine sent a letter to the pope asking for help. In response the pope sent five ships full of reinforcements, weapons and supplies. Another defense tactic involved Constantine blocking off the port so that the Ottoman army could not get ships into it. However, Mehmed was a great problem solver. He had his people pave a path from oiled down tree branches in order to bring eighty ships across land and place them into the gulf behind the enemy ships. The Ottoman ships burnt the Byzantine ones in a naval battle.^[18]

Panoramic view of the Golden Horn in Istanbul, as seen from the Galata Tower. The Galata Bridge can be seen in the center of the picture. The Seraglio Point (Sarayburnu) where the Topkapı Palace is located is seen at the left tip of the historic peninsula; followed by (left to right) the Hagia Sophia, the Sultan Ahmed (Blue) Mosque, the Yeni (New) Mosque near the Galata Bridge, the Beyazıt Tower rising high in the background, and the Süleymaniye (Suleiman the Magnificent) Mosque at far right, among others. The Sea of Marmara and the Princes' Islands are seen in the background, on the horizon. At the extreme left of the picture, the district of Kadıköy (ancient Chalcedon) on the Asian side of the city can be seen. Behind the Galata Bridge, towards the horizon, the Column of Constantine (which was surrounded by iron bars for restoration at the time of this photo) rises.

Since the Byzantine army was still holding on after this defeat the sultan thought it was time to set up his secret weapon that he invented himself, a huge mobile tower. This tower could fit hundreds of people, who could climb to the top of it and be at the same level as the walls of the city, making it easier for them to break into Constantinople. Once the first group of Ottomans entered the city, they were almost immediately killed. In affect, the other Muslims began to retreat. Witnessing this action, the sultan encouraged his soldiers. Soon after the sultan’s encouragement the Muslims broke the wall in two places and charged the city. In a last attempt to protect the city, Constantine attacked the enemy sword raised; however he was ultimately defeated and killed.^[19]

Finally, Constantinople was under Ottoman rule. Mehmed gave his soldiers three days to pillage the city. When Mehmed finally entered Constantinople through what is now known as the Topkapi gate, he immediately rode his horse to the Hagia Sophia church. He ordered that an imam meet him there in order to chant the Muslim Creed: “I testify that there is no God but God. I testify that our lord Muhammad is the Prophet of God.”^[20] This turned the Greek cathedral into a Turkish mosque, solidifying Turkish rule in Constantinople. Before leaving the city, Mehmed declared that Constantinople was to be called Istanbul. The Arabic word for capitol is takht or literally it means “throne.” Thus Mehmed said, “My throne is Istanbul.”^[21]

When reading The Fall of Constantinople, 1453 (Byzantine Greek viewpoint) and The Conquest of Constantinople (Ottoman Turkish viewpoint) the primary sources of the battle, one will notice that the resources written are not that different. They each tell the same story, but of course with any piece of writing the author is going to be somewhat biased, taking for note, the titles. The Byzantines saw Constantinople as falling into the hands of the Turks, while the Turks view Constantinople as being conquered from the Christians. Other biases are seen in the description of each leader.

The composition from the Ottoman Turkish point of view shows Mehmed as a clever, strong conqueror. Evidence of this biasness is depicted in the statement “the sultan ordered the setting up of his secret weapon which he had invented himself,”^[22] here Mehmed is seen as an intelligent military leader. While the composition from the Byzantine point of view shows Constantine Palaeologus as a brave leader who gave his life for the cause. As quoted from the Byzantine essay, Constantine “charged into the sea of the enemy soldiers, hitting left and right in a final act of defiance.”^[23] Besides for these variations in their stories, the battle occurs in the same manner and neither of the compositions portrays the opposition in a brutally negative light.

Mehmed’s main concern with Istanbul had to do with rebuilding the city’s defenses and repopulation. Building projects were commenced immediately after the conquest, which included the repair of the walls, construction of the citadel, and building a new palace.^[24] Mehmed issued orders across his empire that Muslims, Christians, and Jews should resettle the city; he demanded that five thousand households needed to be deported to Istanbul by September.^[25]

By 1459 the Sultan promoted a lot of energy to bringing prosperity to Istanbul. In several quarters of the city pious foundations were created; these areas consisted of a theological college, a school (or a Madrasa, usually connected to the mosque^[26]), a public kitchen, and a mosque.^[27] In the same year Mehmed sent out orders that any Greeks who left Istanbul as slaves or refugees were allowed to return to the city. These actions lead Istanbul to become a once again thriving capital of the Ottoman Empire.^[28]

Suleiman the Magnificent’s reign over the Ottoman Empire from 1520 to 1566 was a period of great artistic and architectural achievements. The famous architect Sinan designed many mosques and other grand buildings in the city, while Ottoman arts of ceramics and calligraphy also flourished. Many tekkes survive to this day; some in the form of mosques while others have become museums such as the Cerrahi Tekke and the Sünbül Efendi and Ramazan Efendi mosques and türbes in Fatih, the Galata Mevlevihanesi in Beyoğlu, the Yahya Efendi tekke in Beşiktaş, and the Bektaşi Tekke in Kadıköy, which now serves Alevi Muslims as a cemevi.

Panoramic view of the historic peninsula of Istanbul, looking westwards from the southern entrance of the Bosporus Strait at the Sea of Marmara. From left to right, the Blue Mosque, the Hagia Sophia and the Topkapı Palace are seen, along with the surviving sections of the Sea Walls of Constantinople. The Galata Tower is seen at the far right of the picture, across the Golden Horn. The arches and vaults of the Byzantine-era Mangana (Armoury) and the Hagios Georgios Monastery which was located inside it are seen between the Blue Mosque and the Hagia Sophia, near the shore (because of its prominent position close to the Seraglio Point, the Mangana Monastery of Hagios Georgios was a well-known landmark for Western sailors who called the Bosporus "the arm of Saint George" since the thirteenth century.)^[29] The dome of the Hagia Irene can be seen to the right of the Hagia Sophia.

[edit] Multi-ethnic way of living

Daily life near the Hayratiye Bridge

In the final years of the Byzantine Empire the population of Constantinople had reduced steadily, throwing the great imperial city into the shadow of its past glory. For Mehmet II conquest was only the first stage; the second was giving the old city an entirely new cosmopolitan social structure. Most of what remained of the Byzantine population-a mere 30,000 people-was deported. According to the Ashikpashazade, a Turkish chronicler,

Mehmet then sent officers to all his lands to announce that whoever wished should come and take possession in Constantinople, as freehold, of houses and orchards and gardens...Despite this measure the city was not repopulated. So then the Sultan commanded that from every land families, rich and poor alike, should be brought in by force...and now the city began to be populous.

Mehmet took much personal interest in the creation of his new capital. On his orders the great mosque and the college of Fatih were built on the old burial grounds of the Byzantine Emperors at the Church of the Holy Apostles. Bit by bit the great Christian city was transformed into a great Muslim city. Even so, the city was not to be entirely Muslim, at least not until the late twentieth century. Slavs, Greeks, Jews and Armenians, all of whose diverse skills were needed, were allowed to settle in a city which was to become known as alem penah-refuge of the universe. According to the census of 1477, there were 9,486 houses occupied by Muslims; 3,743 by Greeks; 1,647 by Jews; 267 by Christians from the Crimea, and 31 Gypsies. Mehmet also re-established Istanbul, as we should now call it, as the center of the Orthodox patriarchate. The atmosphere was both relaxed and tolerant, as a Jewish rabbi noted in a letter:

View of the Seraglio Point from Pera, with the Bosphorus at left, the entrance of the Golden Horn at right, and the Sea of Marmara with the Princes' Islands on the horizon

...every one of us lives in peace and freedom. Here the Jew is not compelled to wear the yellow star as a badge of shame as is the case in Germany, where even wealth and great fortune are a curse for the Jew because he therewith arouses jealousy among the Christians and they devise all sorts of slander against him to rob him of his gold.

There was also an Italian community in the area of the Galata Tower. Having surrendered before the fall of the city Mehmet allowed them to preserve an element of self-government. For generations after they supplied interpretors and diplomats for the Ottoman Court. After the conquest of Egypt in 1517, and the Sultan's acceptance of the position of Caliph, Istanbul acquired an additional importance in Muslim eyes. Mosques built by Suleyman the Magnificent and his successors gave the city the unique appearance it still preserves today. The individual communities, though, still lived in self-contained areas, and had little in the way of social interaction, a source of future trouble.

[edit] Foundations (vakifs)

The Grand Bazaar (1455) and Topkapı Palace (1459) were erected in the years following the Turkish conquest. Religious foundations were endowed to fund the building of mosques such as the Fatih (1463) and their associated schools and public baths. The city had to be repopulated by a mixture of force and encouragement.

Istanbul, depicted by Piri Reis, about 1525

Süleyman’s reign was a time of great artistic and architectural achievements. The architect Sinan designed many mosques and other great buildings in the city, while Ottoman arts of ceramics and calligraphy also flourished.

Sufi orders which were so widespread in the Islamic world and who had many followers who had actively participated in the conquest of the city came to settle in the capital. During Ottoman times over 100 Tekkes were active in the city alone. Many of these Tekkes survive to this day some in the form of mosques while others as museums such as the Jerrahi Tekke in Fatih, the Sunbul Effendi and Ramazan Effendi Mosque and Turbes also in Fatih, the Galata Mevlevihane in Beyoğlu, the Yahya Effendi Tekke in Beşiktaş, and the Bektashi Tekke in Kadıköy, which now serves Alevi Muslims as a Cem Evi.

[edit] Modernization

As the years passed the population increased, from about 80,000 at the death of Mehmet, to 300,000 by the eighteenth century, and 400,000 in 1800. The capital of an empire that stretched across Europe, Asia and Africa, it also became an important diplomatic centre, with several foreign embassies. The city continued to develop a distinct international identity, so much so that by the time the population reached a million in 1900, under 50% of the people were Muslim. It was only after 1922, following the war between Greece and Turkey that things really began to change. With the establishment of the new Turkish Republic, built on a wave of nationalism, there was a mass exodus of much of the Greek and Armenian population from Istanbul, which had ceased to be the capital. After riots in 1955 the remaining fraction also departed.

The city was modernized from the 1870s onwards with the building of bridges, the creation of a proper water system, the use of electric lights, and the introduction of streetcars and telephones.

A street in Eyüp in 1890s

Old Galatasaray

Beyoğlu (Pera)

Tophane in 1890s

[edit] Republic of Turkey

Main article: Turkey

When the Republic of Turkey was founded in 1923, the capital was moved from Istanbul to Ankara. The city's name Constantinople had remained, in the form Konstantiniyye, throughout the Ottoman period. Outside the Empire, it was often known as Stambul or Stamboul. There are various other names of Istanbul, used throughout history (Names of Istanbul). With the Turkish Post Codes Law of 1930, it was ordered that from then on only the name "Istanbul" would be used in official documents and letters.

In the early years of the republic, Istanbul was overlooked in favour of the new capital Ankara but, during the 1950s and 1960s, Istanbul underwent great structural change. The city's once numerous and prosperous Greek community, remnants of the city's Greek origins, dwindled in the aftermath of the 1955 Istanbul Pogrom with most Greeks in Turkey leaving their homes for Greece.

In the 1950s the government of Adnan Menderes sought to develop the country as a whole and new roads and factories were constructed throughout the city. Wide modern boulevards and large public squares were built in Istanbul, but some, unfortunately, were at the expense of demolishing many historical buildings.

During the 1970s the population of Istanbul began to increase rapidly as people from Anatolia started migrating to the city in order to find employment in the many new factories that were built in that period. This sudden sharp increase in the population caused a rapid rise in housing development (mostly of poor construction quality and shabby appearance) and many previously outlying villages became engulfed into the greater metropolis of Istanbul. Older Turks who have lived in Istanbul for over 30 or more years can still remember how areas such as large parts of Maltepe, Kartal, Pendik, and others were green fields when they were young. Other areas such as Tuzla were nothing more than sleepy villages.

[edit] Further reading and references

For further information one ought to consult An Economic and Social History of the Ottoman Empire, 1300-1914 by Halil Inalcik and Donald Quataert, Between Two Worlds: the Construction of the Ottoman State by Cemal Kafadar; and Turkey a Modern History by E. J. Zürchner. See also Europe's Muslim Capital by Philip Mansel in the June 2003 issue of History Today for a reasonable overview.

[edit] References

1. ^ Vailhé, S. (1908). "Constantinople". Catholic Encyclopedia 4. New York: Robert Appleton Company. Retrieved on 2007-09-12. 
2. ^ İSKİ İstanbul Su ve Kanalizasyon İdaresi: Tarihce. Istanbul water and sewerage administration (history). Retrieved on 2006-03-11.
3. ^ Hunt, Lynn. The Making of the West, Peoples and Cultures. 2nd ed. A, To 1500. Mary Dougherty and Denise B. Wydra. Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2005.pg253
4. ^ Hunt, Lynn. The Making of the West, Peoples and Cultures. 2nd ed. A, To 1500. Mary Dougherty and Denise B. Wydra. Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2005.pg248
5. ^ Hunt, Lynn. The Making of the West, Peoples and Cultures. 2nd ed. A, To 1500. Mary Dougherty and Denise B. Wydra. Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2005.pg248
6. ^ Hunt, Lynn. The Making of the West, Peoples and Cultures. 2nd ed. A, To 1500. Mary Dougherty and Denise B. Wydra. Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2005.pg272
7. ^ Hunt, Lynn. The Making of the West, Peoples and Cultures. 2nd ed. A, To 1500. Mary Dougherty and Denise B. Wydra. Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2005.pgs273-276
8. ^ Hunt, Lynn. The Making of the West, Peoples and Cultures. 2nd ed. A, To 1500. Mary Dougherty and Denise B. Wydra. Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2005.pg291
9. ^ Hunt, Lynn. The Making of the West, Peoples and Cultures. 2nd ed. A, To 1500. Mary Dougherty and Denise B. Wydra. Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2005.pg292
10. ^ Hunt, Lynn. The Making of the West, Peoples and Cultures. 2nd ed. A, To 1500. Mary Dougherty and Denise B. Wydra. Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2005.pgs313-314
11. ^ Hunt, Lynn. The Making of the West, Peoples and Cultures. 2nd ed. A, To 1500. Mary Dougherty and Denise B. Wydra. Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2005.pg427
12. ^ Hunt, Lynn. The Making of the West, Peoples and Cultures. 2nd ed. A, To 1500. Mary Dougherty and Denise B. Wydra. Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2005.pg427
13. ^ Hunt, Lynn. The Making of the West, Peoples and Cultures. 2nd ed. A, To 1500. Mary Dougherty and Denise B. Wydra. Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2005.pg427
14. ^ Inalcik, Halil. “The Policy of Mehmed II toward the Greek Population of Istanbul and the Byzantine Buildings of the City.” Dumbarton Oaks Papers 23, (1969): 229-249.pg229
15. ^ Hatzopoulos, Dionysios. "The Fall of Constantinople." http://www.greece.org/Romiosini/fall.html (accessed2/10/08).pg6
16. ^ Eversley, Lord. The Turkish Empire form 1288-1914. 3rd ed. Howard Fertig. New York: Howard Fertig Inc., 1924.pg2
17. ^ Eversley, Lord. The Turkish Empire form 1288-1914. 3rd ed. Howard Fertig. New York: Howard Fertig Inc., 1924.pg2
18. ^ Hatzopoulos, Dionysios. "The Fall of Constantinople." http://www.greece.org/Romiosini/fall.html (accessed2/10/08).pg7
19. ^ Hatzopoulos, Dionysios. "The Fall of Constantinople." http://www.greece.org/Romiosini/fall.html (accessed2/10/08).pgs4-10
20. ^ Lewis, Bernard. Istanbul and the Civilization if the Ottoman Empire. 1, University of Oklahoma Press, 1963.pg6
21. ^ Inalcik, Halil. “The Policy of Mehmed II toward the Greek Population of Istanbul and the Byzantine Buildings of the City.” Dumbarton Oaks Papers 23, (1969): 229-249.pg233
22. ^ El-Halaby, Br. Muhammad. "The Liberation of Constantinople." Nida'ul Islam 14 (1996): 1-3.pg2
23. ^ Hatzopoulos, Dionysios. "The Fall of Constantinople." http://www.greece.org/Romiosini/fall.html (accessed2/10/08).pg10
24. ^ Inalcik, Halil. “The Policy of Mehmed II toward the Greek Population of Istanbul and the Byzantine Buildings of the City.” Dumbarton Oaks Papers 23, (1969): 229-249.pg236
25. ^ Inalcik, Halil. “The Policy of Mehmed II toward the Greek Population of Istanbul and the Byzantine Buildings of the City.” Dumbarton Oaks Papers 23, (1969): 229-249.pg236
26. ^ Hunt, Lynn. The Making of the West, Peoples and Cultures. 2nd ed. A, To 1500. Mary Dougherty and Denise B. Wydra. Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2005.pg330
27. ^ Inalcik, Halil. “The Policy of Mehmed II toward the Greek Population of Istanbul and the Byzantine Buildings of the City.” Dumbarton Oaks Papers 23, (1969): 229-249.pg237
28. ^ Inalcik, Halil. “The Policy of Mehmed II toward the Greek Population of Istanbul and the Byzantine Buildings of the City.” Dumbarton Oaks Papers 23, (1969): 229-249.pg238
29. ^ Byzantium 1200: Monastery of Saint George of the Mangana