History of Armenian nationality
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
The history of citizenship and nationality in Armenia begins in the 7th century BCE, and continues through its occupation and independence. Because of the nature of the subject and the difficulty in obtaining information, only periodic information about citizenship rights is available. Through Armenia's long history, they have been able to retain their nationality through their own language, the Armenian Church, and through the Armenians Script. Throughout each occupation, they have remained their own ethnicity.
[edit] Timeline
Although Armenia was constantly being invaded it retained a certain level of autonomy. The Armenian Apostolic Church controlled marriage, divorce, and inheritance issues. Nobles and peasants were allowed to marry. There was a national judge called Melik of Erevan who would decide on dispute cases. Most peasants lived and worked on crown land and therefore had to pay taxes to the state. However, there are three countries that stand out in Armenian history; the Ottoman Empire, the Russian Empire, and the Persian Empire. They each formulated their own policies to deal with the Armenian population.
- 645 - 94 BC: Periods of foreign and self rule
- 63 - 428 AD: Ruled by the Arshakuni dynasty
- 1063 - 1072: Conquered by Seljuk Turks
- 1242 - 1244: Invaded by Mongols
- 1500 - 1700: Fighting over Ottoman Turks and Persians
- 1800 - 1828: Ruled by Persia
- 1828 - 1991: Ruled by Russia under the Treaty of Turkmanchai
[edit] Armenians in the Ottoman Empire
- See also: Armenians in the Ottoman Empire
[edit] Millet system
Sultan Mehmed II established the millet system in 1461 to govern the Armenian community.
[edit] Political rights
The millet system constituted of a self-governed community within the Turkish Empire. The central authority was the patriarch who received ornate crosier and a breast cross as an insignia from the sultan. The Armenian patriarch was responsible for creating marital law, criminal law, and law of succession.[1].
In Turkish courts, Christians could not stand trial against Muslims.
[edit] Civil rights
In 1517, Selim I guaranteed that Armenians were entitle to their own possessions and institutions however this was soon repealed. They were forced to pay poll taxes except for the priests. They were not allowed to join the army or hold any public positions. They had no right to privacy and were expressly forbidden to sing or make noise in their homes. They were entitled to serve the sultan in the forms of grand viziers, generals, and bankers.[2].
[edit] Religious tolerance
Religious freedom was not tolerated as conversion to Christianity was punishable by capital punishment. Christian churches were not allowed to have crosses or ring bells. The repression also took the form of civil repression for example Christians were not allowed to engrave their names in the gems of their rings. In 1520 Sultan Selim I demanded that all Christians convert to Islam under penalty of death though this was eventually repealed.
[edit] French proctection
In 1740, France was given the protective right of Catholics within the Ottoman Empire. This allowed the French to protect non-French Christian families such as the Armenians.
[edit] The Paris Peace Treaty of 1855
Following the defeat of the Ottoman Empire by Russia in the 1855 Crimean War, the Ottomans were forced to sign the Paris Peace Treaty. In article 7, the Ottoman Empire agreed to treat all subjects equally irrespective of their religion or race. On March 16th, 1855 Armenians were given the right to bear witness at the Ottoman Court. The Ottomans were forced to accept Christian testimony against Muslims though only in criminal procedures, not civil court cases. They were also allowed to join the imperial army. In addition, in February 1856 they were granted unrestricted religious freedom and were allowed to work in public posts. March 19, 1863 a separate parliament was created for the Armenians comprising a religious and civilian house.
[edit] Basic Law of 1876
Armenians were forced to pay tribute to the Kurdish Agas (Counts) following orders from the Abdul Hamid II (1876-1909). December 23 1876, Basic Law was adopted which stipulated that Islam was the state religion though it guaranteed freedom of religion. Christians and Jews were treated as equal citizens. They were allowed to fill public posts on the condition that they had a strong command of the Turkish language. All religious communities would be represented in Parliament though not equally.
[edit] The Ottoman Constitution
The Constitution was ratified December 23, 1876. The relevant articles pertaining to issues of citizenship and rights of minorities are listed as follows.
[edit] Civil rights
Article 8 under Public Rights stipulates that all subjects of the empire are to be called Ottomans no matter their religious backgrounds. All Ottomans are equal before the lay without prejudice to religion. In order to eligible for public office the applicant must speak Turkish, the official language of the state (Article 18).
[edit] Religious tolerance
Although Islam was the state religion, Article 11 states that “the state will protect the free exercise of faiths professed in the Empire, and uphold the privileges granted to various bodies, on conditions of public order and morality”.
[edit] Education
Education was free for all Ottoman citizens however they were it would be controlled by the state except in certain areas with specific religious schools.
[edit] Young Turks
1911 marked the beginning of ‘Turkification’, the assimilation of national minorities.
[edit] Congress of Salonica 1911
The congress accepted the ideal of Pan-Islamism in the government. Freedom of association was denied to all other nationalities i.e., non-Muslims. However, minorities were allowed to practice their own religious. Minorities were expressly forbidden to speak their own language. The Turkish government increased taxes to an exorbitant rate forcing Armenian populations to leave.
[edit] World War I
Armenians fought in World War I. Ottoman law stipulated that any Ottoman could be relieved of service by paying exemption taxes which many Armenians did. However, this soon came to an end. Armenians in the military held the lowest ranks. They worked in hospitals as physicians, nurses, and attendants. A select few were promoted to higher positions. However, as the Ottoman Empire continue to be defeated, they grew wary of ethnic minorities within their ranks. Armenians were suddenly removed from the front and moved to special labor regiments. Between December 1914 and January 1915 men were disarmed and forced into labor positions for example road building, trenching, and transportation.
[edit] June 1915 Law
The June 1915 Law transferred non-Turkish soldiers in active formation to military formations without arms. They were forced to engage in services of the rear for example road building, trenching, and transportation. This was accompanied by simultaneous aggressive actions on the part of the government against Armenian civilian populations. In May 1915 Interior Minister ordered the deportation of Armenians to the Mesopotamian deserts effectively suspending the few legal rights they were entitled to. Armenians were forbidden to carry arms though according to the law of 1908 they were legally allowed to. In addition, they were forced to follow Turkish dress regulations
[edit] Treaty of Sevres
The Treaty of Sevres signed August 10, 1920 declared Eastern Armenia’s independence from Turkey. The border issue was addressed in Article 89 under which the President of the United States would arbitrate the question of frontier in Erzeru, Trebizond, Anc and Biltis. In addition the Turkish Empire was forced to demilitarize bordering territories on its side. However, Turkey never ratified this agreement.
[edit] Armenians in the Republic of Turkey
- See also: Armenians in Turkey
The Treaty of Lausanne was signed July 24 1923.
Since the adoption of the Lausanne Treaty numerous discriminatory laws have been introduced. Christians are excluded from civil service positions for example the police force or judiciary. In 1982 Islamic religious education became mandatory at schools. In addition, non-Muslims are no longer allowed to have their own school systems. The 1934 law forbade the wearing of church garments outside churches. Non-Muslim minorities are forced to complete military service. Until 1940 they were forced to do labor instead of military service however they now do standard service in remote areas. In addition, military regulations stipulate that no Christian can become an officer.
[edit] Civil rights
Under Article 38 the Turkish Government assured full and complete protection of life and liberty of all inhabitants of Turkey without distinction of birth, nationality, language, race or religion. [3]. Non-Muslim minorities were entitled to the freedom of movement and immigration according to regular Turkish law. Any non-Muslims were eligible for public employment.
[edit] Political rights
Non-Muslims were entitled to same political rights as all Muslims. All inhabitants of Turkey would be treated equally before the law.
[edit] Social rights
Non-Muslim minorities were given the right to establish, manage, and control, at their own expense, any charitable, religious, and or social institutions. They were also given the right to establish their own schools or other educational institutions in their own language. Primary schools would be taught in the language of the minority where necessary. However, Turkish language classes were obligatory in all schools.
[edit] Cultural rights
They were entitled to exercise their religion in private and public providing it does not interfere with public order and good morals. Any language could be used in private, in commerce, religion, in the press, in publications, and at public meetings. They would also be allowed to speak in their own language before the court.
[edit] Armenians in the Persian Empire
- See also: Armenians in the Persian Empire
[edit] Persian Empire
In 1604 Shah Abbas ordered the forced migration of Armenians from greater Armenia. The Safavids were a dynasty of mixed ethnicity. They ruled Persia from approximately 1501 to 1722[4]. They had a benevolent ‘Nationality Policy’ towards non-Shiite Muslims and non-Muslims. Armenians were granted special privileges enabling them to retain their nationality. However these laws were soon repealed towards the end of the century as discrimination increased.
[edit] Political rights
Under Shah Abbas, Armenians were granted free citizenship. However, being non-Muslims they were never treated with the same equality as other Persian citizens as they were taxed, though the taxes were very small. The poll tax was 4.69 grams of gold per adult male. However, in 1666, taxes increased heavily.
The Armenian community became a new administrative unit led by the Catholicostate of Etchmiadzin. They were entitled to their own bishop who had authority over all Armenians in Shiraz, Hamadic, Rasht, Anzali, Kashan, Qarvin, Tehran, Basra, and Baghdad. In addition, they were given the right to elect their own mayor known as the kalantar. The Armenian Kalantar of New Julfa had jurisdiction over all the Armenians in the vicinity. He was in charge of selecting headmen from each village who in turn, would collect taxes for the Shah.
Armenians were granted the right to have their own courts and judges. As in the Armenian tradition, when disputes arose between Christians and Muslims the shah would be called to make a ruling and in order to placate the new migrants, would usually rule in favor of the Armenians.
[edit] Religious tolerance
Shah Abbas mandated that the Armenian community be granted religious liberty. They were allowed to construct their own churches and hold public religious processions.
Shah Solayman(1666-94) and Shah Sultan Hosain (1694-1722) instituted a more discriminatory policy and openly persecuted the Armenians blaming them for crop failures and draughts. He put an end to religious tolerance and instead demanded the forced conversion of Armenians to Islam. As an incentive he instituted the Law of Apostasy which stipulated that if a Christian (or a Jew) converted to Islam, they would receive the property of his relatives.
Abbas Mirza, attempted to make special concessions to the Armenians as well specifically regarding religious tolerance. He granted special privileges to the Armenian clergy. The Head of the Armenian Church was given free land under the auspices of waqf. In an 1832 Decree he exempted the Armenian Archbishop from paying taxes.
This was once again repealed and Church land was confiscated until an 1844 Decree by Shah Mohammed ordering the restoration of property taken from the Armenian Church.
[edit] Economic rights
In an effort to promote economic independence, Shah Abbas lent interest-free loans to Armenians. In addition, he lent oxen and other animals to Armenian peasants. Armenians were allowed to practice mercantilism under the protection of the Safavid. They were given the right to travel freely across borders enabling them to set up overland and maritime trade routes.
The right to trade was taken away in 1666. However they were once again restored in 1736 under Shah Nader who allowed them to travel freely overseas.
[edit] Education rights
Armenians were granted the right to educate their own children in conformity with their own religious and cultural beliefs under the rule of Shah Abbas. For example, in 1630 an Armenian University was founded from the contributions of local Armenians.
[edit] Social rights
An 1858 Decree stipulated that Armenian inheritance laws would be used by the state in dealing with the Armenian community.
[edit] Russo-Persian wars
As the Persian and Russian empires engaged in wars, increasing discriminatory practices and laws were instituted against the Armenians. The wars came to an end in 1828 with the signing of the Treaty of Torkmanchay. Under it, Russia received Armenia Proper. As such, it provided for the mass emigration of Iranian Armenians to the newly created Russian Armenian province under Article 15.
[edit] Armenians in the Iran
- See also: Armenian Iranians
[edit] Iranian Constitution of 1906
There was widespread discrimination against the Armenians under Reza Shah. Armenian schools were closed and clubs were forbidden. The first Iranian Constitution was adopted July 27th, 1906. Under the Electoral Law of September 9, 1906, no religious minorities would be represented in the Majles Iranian Parliament.
[edit] Iranian Constitution of 1979
A new constitution was ratified December 24 1979 which deals with the treatment of minorities including the Armenians. They are considered their own nationality within Iran.
[edit] Religious tolerance
Under Article 13, Zoroastrian, Jewish, and Christian Iranians are the only recognized religious minorities. They have the right to practice their own religions and ceremonies within the limits of the law.
[edit] Education
Religion minorities are allowed to have religious educational institutes.
[edit] Language
Under Article 15, the official language of Iran is Persian. All official documents, correspondence, texts, and text-books must be in Persian as well as Persian script. Minority languages are allowed in the press, in the mass media, and for teaching of their literature in schools. However, under Article 16 Persian must be taught in elementary schools, in secondary schools, and in all areas of study.
[edit] Freedom of association
Under Article 26, the formation of religious societies of the recognized religious minorities is allowed providing they do not violate the principles of independence, freedom, national unity, the criteria of Islam, or the basis of the Islamic republic. No one may be prevented from participating in the aforementioned groups, or be compelled to participate in them.
[edit] Armenians in the Russian Empire
- See also: Armenians in the Russian Empire
Armenians residing in the Eastern Armenia were for the most part autonomous. Under the Treaty of Turmanchi 1828 Persia gave Eastern Armenia (Transcaucus) to Russia. There was less autonomy under Russian rule.
[edit] Political rights
Muslim landlords had administrative and judicial power over Armenian peasants.[5] Taxes were much higher.
[edit] Religious rights
The Polozhenie Law (1836) was instituted regulating relations between the Armenian Church and Russian government. The head of the Armenian Church had to be confirmed by the Russian Tsar before installed in the office. However it also guaranteed the institutional autonomy of the Armenian Church and the right to have its own schools. [6]
In 1881, the Tsarist government began an anti-Armenian campaign. They made overtures to promote the conversion of Armenians to Russian orthodoxy for example they offered lands to the converted. The June 1903 Decree announced the government confiscation of all Church property.
[edit] Education rights
They also attacked the Armenian parochial schools. In 1844, only the first two grades were allowed in elementary schools. Schools with more than two grades had to teach in the Russian language. The June 1897 Decree mandated that the Ministry of Education control all the Armenian parochial schools if not they, would be closed. After 1900, no universities or polytechnic schools were allowed to open in the Caucasus. Armenians were only admitted to Russian Universities on a quota basis.
[edit] Civil rights
Many Armenians worked for the civil service however in 1896 no additional Armenians were accepted in the civil service. In addition, those who were already employed there were not allowed to serve in Armenian districts. The 1912 Legislation mandated the compulsory redemption of land by peasants within a maximum of 56 years. In addition, taxes for the Armenian population were much higher than for the rest of the populations.
[edit] Provisional government
Under the provisional government, territories occupied by Armenians were known as Russian Armenia. It had an appointed vicegoverner. In December 1917 the Soviet government declared the right to self-determination for Russian Armenia. On May 28 1918 Eastern Armenia announced its independence. Armenian Nationalist Leaders adopted the following laws. On March 12th, 1919 electoral law women were given the right to vote for members of Parliament [7]. On March 20, 1920 parochial schools were secularized.
[edit] Socialist Soviet Republic of Armenia
- See also: Armenians in Russia
Eastern Armenia, newly independent, was conquered by the Soviet Red Army in 1920. They did not gain independence until the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991.
Communists used the policy of 'korennizatsiia' or rooting to govern the area. Although the idea was to slowly force a Russian nationality on the Armenians. The First Congress of Soviets of Armenia adopted the Constitution of the Socialist Soviet Republic of Armenia on January 33, 1922.
[edit] Civil rights
In May 1923 any person who had served in the armies that had fought against the Communists or who had participated in any form of counter-revolutionary organization were deprived of civil rights. The Civil Law Code of Soviet Armenia was adopted in December 1923.
[edit] Military
In August 1927 the peasants were systemically disarmed. [8]
[edit] New Economic Policy
The New Economic Policy was adopted in 1921. Peasants were allowed to hire agricultural labor and sell produce on the free market. In addition, private traders and small industrial producers were tolerated [9] . Land committees were set up in each village in 1921 to deal with the division of land following the nationalization of all land.
[edit] Family legislation
Soviet family legislation aimed at breaking the traditional family and promoting a communist attitude. Murder was punished by the sate not through family vendetta. The purchase or sale of a woman in marriage through any form of payment including a dowry was not allowed. The criminal code changed to include the rape of women as an offense punishable by state jurisdiction.
On October 17, 1918 the first Soviet code dealing with family was introduced. Marriage could only occur through the mutual consent of both parties. Divorce was possible through the consent of both parties. If consent was not mutual then it would be dealt with through court proceedings. Marriage and divorce were established by registration at the end of the local office of Registry of Acts of Civil Status. It was no longer controlled by the Church.
Inheritance was based on descent; both legitimate and illegitimate children had equal rights. Parents were legally responsible for girls under sixteen years old and boys under eighteen years old. [10] All decisions affecting a child had to be made with the consent of both parents.
Family law was re-codified on November 19, 1926. It stipulated that divorces could be settled outside of court even if it was only desired by one person. Courts were given the right to remove parental rights and place children with guardians if they judged that parents physically abused or did not care for their children.
Marriage laws were changed so girls could only marry at the age of 16 and boys at the age of 18. Underage marriage needed the approval of the state or else parents would be persecuted. [11]
[edit] Women’s rights
November 18, 1920 abortions were legalized. However, women with few or no children were not permitted to have free, legal abortions. [12] They had to be performed in state hospitals by state-employed doctors. On October 30th 1922 the Land Code was implemented stipulating that either a man or a woman could be the legal head of a household. The Civil Code on inheritance adopted November 11th, 1922, stipulated that both male and female descendents were entitled to equal part of the inheritance. Under the re-codified law women living in de-facto marriages were given the same rights as those of registered wives.
[edit] Education
The radio, cinema, press, theaters, and schools in Soviet Armenia were placed under the direction of the Commissariat of Education who was controlled by the Soviet Party. At the beginning of the 1920s schools became co-ed. Schools were completely secularized. The study of religion was expressly prohibited until the age of 18. In addition, priests were not allowed to teach at any school or cultural institution [13] .
Each county had a department of education headed by a chairman chosen by the county executive committee. Local authorities chose textbooks and picked teachers through the policy of korennizatsiia. There were a few pre-schools and kindergartens run by the state though most people didn’t use them, they taught Soviet history. Elementary education was compulsory starting in 1923 and free. There were secondary schools as well as universities though few Armenians went. Children of the ‘disinherited class’ (merchants, priests, nobles, etc.) were excluded from Universities.
[edit] Language
Official language was Armenian. It was used in government administration and all schools except those for ethnic minorities. In 1922 a new orthography was introduced. In 1932, Russian was a compulsory subject in technology and higher education schools. ([14]
[edit] Religious freedom
Under the constitution every citizen was entitled to follow the religion of their choice. Freedom of worship was legalized. Any religious persecution was officially condemned. However, the soviet government took every other right away. Parochial schools were secularized. The property of the Echmiadzin Monastery was confiscated including land, printing press, museums and libraries.
[edit] Political rights
March 7, 1937 all citizens were entitled to suffrage except the insane and convicts. This effectively ended the ‘disenfranchiment’ social classification. Urban and rural distinctions were eliminated when allocating deputies per capita population. On November 12 1946, the minimum voting age was raised from 18 to 21 years.
[edit] Republic of Armenia
In 1991 Armenia announced its independence as the newly formed state of Republic of Armenia. The Constitution was finalized July 5, 1995.
[edit] Citizenship laws
Implemented November 26, 1995
[edit] By recognition
Citizens of the former Soviet Socialist Armenia who reside in the Republic of Armenia and have not been granted another citizenship are entitled to Armenian citizenship as well as those who have lived abroad since September 21, 1991.
[edit] By birth
According to jus soli, any child born to one citizen is entitled to citizenship of the Republic of Armenia. In the case of only one parent being an Armenian citizen, both parents must have a written agreement entitling the child to either Armenian citizenship or no citizenship at all.
[edit] By descent
According to jus sanguins, a child whose parents are both Armenian citizens is automatically a citizen regardless of their birthplace as is a child under 14 whose parents have just acquired Armenian citizenship. An adopted child of Armenian citizens also acquires Armenian citizenship.
[edit] By naturalization
Armenian citizenship is granted on the conditions that the applicant a) is 18 years old, b) has lived in Armenia for the past three years, c) able to speak the Armenian language and d) is familiar with the Constitution of Armenia.
[edit] Political rights
The Electoral Code of the Republic of Armenia was adopted by the National Assembly of the Republic February 5th, 1999. Article 2 stipulates that citizens of the Republic of Armenia over the age 18 have the right to vote. Armenians who live outside of Armenia also have the electoral vote as do disabled persons. Citizens who have been sentenced to imprisonment or have been punished according to a court judgment cannot vote or be elected.
[edit] Women’s rights
Women and minorities are allowed to participate in the government and in politics. Women are allowed to work. Women have equal rights to men in marriage, throughout marriage, and in divorce.
[edit] Family legislation
The Family Code was adopted November 9 2004. According to Article 10, marriage contracts are only legal with the mutual consent of a man, age 18 or older, and a woman, age 17 or older. Marriages are prohibited if
- one of the persons is already legally married
- between parents and children, grandparents and grandchildren, siblings, aunts, uncles, and cousins
- between adopters and adopted
- one of the persons is considered incapable by the court.
Divorce can be granted in the case of mutual consent by the Civil Status Registration Department or if there is a lack of agreement through a judicial process. A husband may not submit an application for divorce while his wife is pregnant.
[edit] Education rights
Article 35 of the Armenian Constitution declares that each citizen has the right to education. Secondary education is only free in state institutions. Every citizen has the right to receive higher education as well as specialized or vocalized education in state institutions free of charge.
[edit] Taxation
Armenian citizens must pay value added tax (VAT), profit tax, income tax, property tax, land tax, simplified tax, and excise. Non-resident taxpayers must submit annual income statements. They mush pay profit taxes which if it exceeds $3,500 must pay twice throughout the year. Foreigners must pay the following income taxes; 5% on insurance compensation and income from transport (freight), 10% on income from royalties, interest, and lease of property.
[edit] Civil rights
Under Article 14 of the Constitution everyone is equal before the law. Discrimination based on sex, race, color, ethnicity, language, religion, or belief is prohibited. Article 15 stipulates that everyone has the right to life. The death penalty is not legal. Everyone is entitled to the right to liberty and security except if
- A person is sentenced for a crime
- A person has not executed a legitimate judicial act
- To ensure the proper fulfillment of specific responsibilities within the law
- Suspicion of a crime
- To establish educational control over a minor
- To prevent the spread of disease and social dangers from mental patients, alcoholics and drug addicts, and vagrants
- To prevent unauthorized entry of a person or to deporte/extradite a foreigner.
No one can be subject to torture. Armenians have the right to privatize property and reside legally in temporary dwellings. They have the right to own land. They also have the right to travel and return to Armenia.
[edit] Military rights
Armenian men between the age of 18 and 27 years of age must fulfill a 12 month compulsory military service obligation. Only citizens and volunteers may be drafted by the army.
[edit] Minorities
According to Article 37 of the Armenian Constitution citizens that are minorities in Armenia are entitled to the preservation of their traditions and the development of their language and culture.
[edit] Refugees
March 1999, Armenia adopted the Law of Refugees which deals with the legal status of refugees as well as their rights. According to Article 23, refugees seeking Armenians citizenship must adhere to the requirements stipulated in the citizenship laws mentioned above primarily that the applicant be an ethnic Armenian.
Most Armenian refugees within Armenia have Soviet Armenian Passports that are no longer legal documents. Refugees are given neither passports nor travel papers. In order for refugees to obtain travel documents within Armenia they must be over 16 and have (1) entry and exit visas from Armenia and another country (2) financial means to leave and return to Armenia and (3) have the financial means to live in the country.
Ethnic Armenian refugees who leave Armenia are not considered refugees because they migrate for economic reasons and the Geneva Convention clearly stipulates that to gain refugee status you must have a fear of persecution.
Refugees with the Armenian Republic do not have the right to be drafted for the army (though they usually are), they are not allowed to vote, they have no political rights or civil rights They do not have the right to live in temporary dwellings and can be evicted at any moment.
[edit] References
- ^ Baum, Wilhelm. The Christian Minorities in Turkey. Kitab. 25
- ^ Baum, ibid. 25
- ^ ibid p. 168
- ^ Chaqueri, Cosroe ed. The Armenians of Iran: The Paradoxical Role of a Minority in a Dominant Culture Articles and Documents. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1998 p.21
- ^ Mary 2
- ^ Matossian, Mary Kilbourne. The Impact of Soviety Policies in Armenia. Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1962. p.2
- ^ Matossian ibid. p.31
- ^ ibid. p. 47
- ^ ibid. p. 53
- ^ ibid. p. 56
- ^ ibid. p. 64
- ^ ibid. p. 70
- ^ ibid. p. 82
- ^ ibid. p. 80
[edit] Books
- Baum, Wilhelm. The Christian Minorities in Turkey. Kitab.
- Berberian, Houri. Armenians and the Iranian Constitutional Revolution of 1905-1911. Boulder: Westview Press, 2001.
- Bournoutian, George A ed. Armenians and Russia (1626-1796): A Documentary Record. Mazda Publishers , 2001.
- Chaqueri, Cosroe ed. The Armenians of Iran: The Paradoxical Role of a Minority in a Dominant Culture Articles and Documents. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1998.
- Marashlian, Levon. Politics and Demography: Armenians, Turks, and Kurds, in the Ottoman Empire. Cambridge: Zoryan Institute, 1991.
- Matossian, Mary Kilbourne. The Impact of Soviety Policies in Armenia. Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1962.
- Somakian, Manoug. Empires in Conflict: Armenia and the Great Powers, 1895-1920. London: I.B. Tauris Publishers, 1995.
- Tarzian, Mary Mangigian. The Armenian Minority Problem. Georgia: Scholars Press, 1992.
- Ternon, Yves. The Armenian Cause trans. Anahid Mangouni. New York: Caravan Books, 1985.
- Toriguian, Shavarsh. The Armenian Question and International Law. Beirut: Hamaskaine Press, 1973.
- Waters, Christopher P.M. ed. The State of Law in the South Caucasus. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005.
[edit] Online resources
- “The Ottoman Constitution.” Worldstatesmen.org. 28 Nov 2007 < http://www.ata.boun.edu.tr/Department%20Webpages/ATA_517/Constitution%20of%20the%20Ottoman%20Empire%201876.doc >.
- CIA “Armenia” The World Factbook. 15 Nov 2007. <https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/am.html> 29 Nov 2007. <https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/am.html>.
- History of Armenia. 2007. Armenica.org. 23 Nov 2007 <http://www.armenica.org/>.
- US State Department "Armenia" Country Reports on Human Rights Practices. 4 March 2002. <http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2001/eur/8221.htm> 27 Nov 2007
- Armenian Government. http://www.gov.am/enversion/index.html 27 Nov 2007
- Parliamentary Elections. “Electoral Code of the Republic of Armenia” <http://www.internews.am/projects/archive/elections/english/law/code/one.htm 27 Nov 2007>
- National Assembly of the Republic of Armenia. “Legislation.” <http://www.parliament.am/legislation.php?lang=eng> 30 Nov 2007.
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