Heteronormativity

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Heteronormativity is a term that is used to describe situations wherein variations from heterosexual orientation are marginalized, ignored or persecuted by social practices, beliefs or policies. These include the idea that human beings fall into two distinct and complementary categories: male and female; that sexual and marital relations are normal only when between people of different sexes; and that each sex has certain natural roles in life. Thus physical sex, gender identity, and gender roles should in any given person align to either all-male or all-female norms, and heterosexuality is considered to be the only normal sexual orientation.

The norms that this term describes might be overt, covert, or implied. Those who identify and criticize heteronormativity say that it distorts discourse by stigmatizing some forms of sexuality and gender, and makes certain types of self-expression more difficult. Heteronormativity is related to the way in which American citizens maintain a neutral basis for society. It alludes to the idea that everyone a person sees in American society is assumed to be a heterosexual, as this is the “normal” way in which people view each other. Things that are not considered heteronormative would be homosexuals, bisexuals, intersexed individuals, people who are transgendered, or people who are married to more than one partner such as polygamists, and polyandrists.

In the article “Charting a Path Through the ‘Desert of Nothing,’” authors Karen Lovaas and Mercilee M. Jenkins describe a world in which heteronormativity prevails, ““Heteronormativity assumes, for example, that there are two sexes and therefore two genders (Lovaas and Jenkins 98).”[1]

This alludes to the idea that there is no room for anything in-between genders and each gender is concretely defined. “Heteronormativity then requires that all discussions of gendered identity and opportunity be framed strictly in terms of this dichotomy, forcing gendered actors to be labeled as either ‘women’ or ‘men,’ regardless of the identification that the actors might give themselves (Lovaas and Jenkins98).”[2]

This makes it easy for society to identify peoples in two categories as either male or female and is the basis for heteronormativity. If a person is heterosexual, they might have the tendency to hold themselves in a higher position than a person who is homosexual due to the presence of heteronormativity.

Contents

[edit] Origin of term

The term was coined by Michael Warner in 1991[3], in one of the first major works of queer theory. The concept has roots in Gayle Rubin's notion of the "sex/gender system" and Adrienne Rich's notion of compulsory heterosexuality[4]. In a series of articles Samuel A. Chambers has tried to theorize heteronormativity more explicitly, calling for an understanding of heteronormativity as a concept that reveals the expectations, demands, and constraints produced when heterosexuality is taken as normative within a society.[5][6]

Cathy J. Cohen defines heteronormativity as the practices and institutions "that legitimize and privilege heterosexuality and heterosexual relationships as fundamental and “natural” within society” [7]. Her work emphasizes the importance of sexuality as implicated in broader structures of power, intersecting with and inseparable from race, gender, and class oppression. She points to the examples of single mothers on welfare (particularly women of color) and sex workers, who may be heterosexual, but are not heteronormative, and thus not perceived as "normal, moral, or worthy of state support" or legitimation[8].

Heteronormativity has been used in the exploration and critique of the traditional norms of sex, gender identity, gender roles and sexuality, and of the social implications of those institutions. It is descriptive of a dichotomous system of categorization that directly links social behavior and self-identity with one's genitalia. That is to say (among other things) that, because there are strictly defined concepts of maleness and femaleness, there are similarly expected behaviors for both males and females.

Originally conceived to describe the norms against which non-heterosexuals struggle, it quickly became incorporated into both the gender and the transgender debate. It is also often used in postmodernist and feminist debates. Those who use this concept frequently point to the difficulty posed to those who hold a dichotomous view of sexuality by the presence of clear exceptions -- from freemartins in the bovine world to intersexual human beings with the sexual characteristics of both sexes. These exceptions are taken as direct evidence that neither sex nor gender are concepts that can be reduced to an either/or proposition.

In a heteronormative society, the binary choice of male and female for one's gender identity is viewed as leading to a lack of possible choice about one's gender role and sexual identity. Also, included in the norms established by society for both genders is the requirement that the individuals should feel and express desire only for partners of the opposite sex. In the work of Eve Sedgwick, for example, this heteronormative pairing is viewed as defining sexual orientation exclusively in terms of the sex and gender of the person one chooses to have sex with, ignoring other preferences one might have about sex[9].

[edit] Heteronormativity and the Past

Males In the past, a heteronormative male would be one who is only attracted to members of the opposite sex. One who makes the money in the family. One who’s sexual desires only involves another woman. One who marries only one woman and maintains a nuclear family. One who perhaps has strong religious values. One who is very masculine with his duties as a male. One who could be considered an all around American man. This has been the projection of the American media, we assume that every man who walks down the street is a person who is only attracted to and has desires to only be with a woman. Females In the past, a heteronormative female resumes the role as a mother, the bearer of children, has a relationship only with a man and only desires to be with another man. When she gets pregnant she stays in the house and becomes a housewife. In the American eye this is the woman that every woman is in American society. It sets the standards and the roles of everyday life in American society. This kind of setting is largely due to the idea of family from the 1950’s perspective. The dominant male and the submissive female prevail in this type of heteronormative society.

[edit] Heteronormativity and patriarchy

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Heteronormativity is often strongly associated with (and sometimes even confused with) patriarchy. However, a patriarchal system is not necessarily restricted to a binary gender system; it merely privileges the masculine gender over all others, regardless of the number of others.

Still, heteronormativity is often seen as one of the pillars of a patriarchal society: the traditional role of men is reinforced and perpetuated through heteronormative mores, rules, and even laws that distinguish between individuals based on their apparent sex or their refusal to conform to the gender roles that are considered normal to their society. Consequently, feminism can be seen as concerned with fighting heteronormativity and the prescriptions it is seen to have for women.

[edit] Possible Explanations for Heteronormativity in the United States

[edit] Instincts Produced by Evolution.

Heteronormativity to many, is a comfortable way of life. Due to the thought of everyone a person sees walking down the street allows for potential in a possible mate, allows for heteronormativity to be reliable. This is more due to an anthropological explanation of possibly why heteronormativity is the way many people operate in the United States. In order to pass on our genes to procreate and make a new generation, we must try and find a mate of the opposite sex, in order to fulfill the procreation. With everyone of the opposite sex available, it gives for a better sense of selection and being able to pick a mate who is more likely to help develop kin who are able to survive in society. This is the reason why a lot of heterosexual females choose an older male as a mate. He is more than likely established and has more money to support the children he and his female counterpart have together. In return, a male usually looks for a female who is preferably young, since she is able to have children for a longer period of time, and who looks as though she is physically able to bear children. This perhaps is why society feels as though a heteronormative way for society is a good basis for neutrality in the United States because it is not uncommon for a male and a female to get married and have children. This view is dealt with a lot from by what was common in the past and what was accepted in the past.


[edit] Religion

Religion also has a lot to do with what is considered a family and how any other type of family besides a nuclear family is usually oppressed. Family is a well-known value to Christians and to other religions in American society. A recent poll from The Pew Forum on Religion and Public Life polled that “78.4% of adults in America are Christian, and only 16.1% are unaffiliated.”[10] This alludes to the fact that many, but not all Americans are subject to fall under heteronormativity as being acceptable since many Christians do not fully agree with an alternative way for a family. According to Thomas Peele, this view of unacceptance by many Christians causes a harmful component of heteronormativity. “The most dangerous heteronormative signifying practice is the utter silence on the subject of non-normative sexuality, a silence that puts everyone at risk by insisting that lesbians, gay men, bisexuals, and the transgendered do not exist (Peele).”[11]

[edit] The Heteronormative Nuclear Family in the Present

Since family is a lot different these days, than from the 1950’s family structure, it is free to assume this family structure does not comply with the present day. Some might argue that heteronormativity is a term of the past due to our ever-changing world and how in and outside of the media people are living with and experiencing a different type of family, one that is based outside of the norms of a nuclear family. According to Amy Benfer’s article, “The Nuclear Family Takes a Hit,” she specifies how our present society is beginning to shift from the past. “Everything has changed: In the past three decades the rates of divorce, single parenting and cohabitation have risen precipitously (Benfer).”[12] The modernization of families are those who have single-parent headed families caused by divorce or separation, families who have two parents who are not married but have kids, and families with same-sexed parents. With the evolution of families, a couple does not have to be strictly a male or female in a relationship in order to have a child. With advances such as artificial insemination, surrogate mothers, adoption, etc, many families do not have to be formed by the heteronormative biological union of a male and a female in order to have a child. Due to this, the meaning of heteronormativity and family change more into an outlook of the future. Since more and more heterosexual people are refusing to or are not able to stay together in a marriage and more and more homosexuals are fighting for their right to be married, there could be a drastic change in what we consider to be a “heteronormative family.”

[edit] Heteronormativity in the Present

Even though half a century has passed, these views have slightly shifted and new views have emerged. In a present heteronormative society, women are more able to go to work along side her male counterparts. It is normal for a woman to marry a man and have children with him and take some time off in order to raise her children. A heteronormative male in today’s society still makes most of the money, but also helps out a lot more with taking care of the children. The gap between male and female roles is starting to diminish, but there still is some separation between what is more normal for each gender. When a standard is set, such as heteronormativity, people feel isolated if the idea of “normal” is not what they practice. As far as those who do not assimilate with the heteronormative view, one’s status is put on the line. Homosexuals are segregated even more by heteronormativity by not allowing two people of the same sex to be married. If a gay man or lesbian woman is in a relationship with another person, to society, he or she is usually called a lover or a life partner and not a boyfriend or girlfriend or even a husband or wife. Even while society understands that everyone is not a heterosexual, it still has troubles identifying what is proper with those who are not heterosexual. It is unnatural in American society for a male to speak of a friend of his who is male and refers to him as a boyfriend for the fear of one thinking he is gay. For females it is more natural for them to refer to a female friend as a girlfriend without any connotation of her being a lesbian. While some are still uncomfortable with non-heterosexual’s lifestyles, some are beginning to realize the hardship non-heterosexuals suffer in a heterosexual driven society. With the ever-changing world society has become more sensitive to a non-heteronormative way of life and understands how painful it can be for a person who is not heterosexual to live in this society. It can be a very harmful thing and might also lead to certain hate crimes, racism, and an imminent feeling of not belonging. Yolanda Dreyer quotes this harm; “Heterosexism leads to prejudice, discrimination, harassment, and violence. It is driven by fear and hatred (Dreyer 5).”[13]

Even American media is beginning to encapsulate entertainment that is not directly related to heterosexuals. The influential movie from 2005, Brokeback Mountain played a huge role in American society by sharing an atypical love story in a heteronormative culture. This was not a story of stereotypical feminine gay men, but a true story of two men who fell in love with each other and felt that they had to keep it a secret in order to uphold their reputations. Boxofficemojo.com claims Brokeback Mountain was at the top of “the most impressive box office performances of 2005.” The site’s authors Brandon Gray wrote, “More than just a movie of the moment, this picture resonated after posting the biggest per theater average for a live action movie on record (Gray),”[14] this is a huge breakthrough for a society who feels more comfortable being heteronormative.

[edit] Heteronormativity in the Future

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Since times are changing, what would happen to this term of heteronormativity if it were to perhaps change a bit? More and more people in American society are not seeing this so-called heteronormative family or way of life. Many people are starting to push the boundaries to what is considered a basis for a sense of normality in American society. Today we see more than one way to have a family. The old view of men being viewed as masculine who need to protect and dominate their families and society, while woman are gentle and sensitive and are more submissive by nature is not as concrete as it once was. All of these stereotypes are stemmed from heteronormativity; it is blatant to see in real life that this is not always the case. There is no one way to define a huge group of people as men only being masculine and woman only being feminine. The beauty is that we share both characteristics and in some ways men are more feminine and females are more masculine. There is no definite way to define someone as heteronormative; it is just the idea of achieving heteronormativity. Heteronormativity is a comfortable concept with a lot of the older generations that still strongly believe against any other form of family besides a nuclear family. Many people in this country are very set in their ways and do not feel as though there is room for change. It could be due to not being able to adapt well to change or the immense thought that a heterosexual lifestyle is the only way to live. With more people feeling comfortable about themselves and the sexuality they identify with, the society is starting to evolve into one that is straying away from heteronormative ways.

[edit] Social and political manifestations of heteronormativity

There are many things that are often pointed at to illustrate the concept of heteronormativity, both historically and in contemporary society. For example, the American commercials for E-harmony Internet dating website and Valtrex genital herpes medication feature only heterosexual couples.

[edit] Intersexed people

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Intersexed people have biological characteristics which are ambiguously either male or female. If such a condition is detected, intersexed people are almost always assigned a gender shortly after birth. Surgery (usually involving modification to the genitalia) is often performed to produce an unambiguously male or female body, with the parents', not the individual's, consent. The child is then usually raised and enculturated as a member of the assigned gender, which may or may not match their gender identity throughout life or some remaining sex characteristics (for example, genes or internal sex organs).

Some individuals who have been subjected to these interventions have objected that, had they been consulted at an age when they were able to give informed consent, and then they would have declined these surgical and social interventions.

Gender theorists argue that gender assignment to intersex individuals is a clear case of heteronormativity, in which biological reality is actually denied in order to maintain a binary set of sexes and genders.

[edit] Gay, lesbian, and bisexual people

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Lesbian, gay, bisexual behavior is commonly disapproved of in many societies, both socially and legally. Many argue that this is because it challenges the heteronormative position that sexual relations exist primarily for reproductive means. If sex cannot be suppressed so far as to at least disappear from the public view, then the notion is said to be encouraged that gay men are not really "men", but have a strong female component (and vice versa), or that in a non-heterosexual partnership there is always a "male" (active) and a "female" (passive) partner. This has in some cases gone so far that homosexuals were encouraged (in Europe and North America in the 1960s and 1970s) or even forced (in South Africa in the 1980s and 1990s) to undergo sex change opeation to "fix" their sex or gender.

[edit] Transgender people

Transgender people often seek sex change operations, thereby violating the assumption that only unambiguous female or male bodies exist. They may not develop a gender identity that corresponds to their body; in fact, some never develop one that is plainly male or female. Often, they do not behave according to the gender role assigned to them. Some societies consider transgender behavior a crime worthy of capital punishment, including Saudi Arabia and many other non-western nations. In other countries, certain forms of violence against transgender people may be tacitly endorsed when prosecutors and juries refuse to investigate, prosecute, or convict those who perform the murders and beatings (currently, in some parts of North America and Europe.[15][16] Other societies have considered transgender behavior as a psychiatric illness serious enough to justify institutionalization.

Certain restrictions on the ability of transgender people to obtain gender-related medical treatment have been blamed on heteronormativity. (See the article on transsexualism.) In medical communities with these restrictions, patients have the option of either suppressing transsexual behavior and conforming to the norms of their birth sex (which may be necessary to avoid social stigma or even violence), or adhering strictly to the norms of their "new" sex in order to qualify for sex reassignment surgery and hormonal treatments -- if any treatment is offered at all.[citation needed] These norms might include dress and mannerisms, choice of occupation, choice of hobbies, and the gender of one's mate (heterosexuality required).[citation needed] (For example, transwomen might be expected to trade a "masculine" job for a more "feminine" one -- e.g. become a secretary instead of a lawyer.) Attempts to achieve an ambiguous or "alternative" gender identity would not be supported or allowed.[citation needed] Some medical communities, especially since the 1990s, have adopted more accommodating practices, but many have not.[citation needed]

Many governments and official agencies have also been criticized as having heteronormative systems that classify people into "male" and "female" genders in problematic ways.[citation needed] Different jurisdictions use different definitions of gender, including by genitalia, DNA, hormone levels (including some official sports bodies), or birth sex (which means one's gender cannot ever be officially changed).[citation needed] Sometimes sex reassignment surgery is a requirement for an official gender change, and often "male" and "female" are the only choices available, even for intersexed or transgender people.[citation needed] Because most governments only allow heterosexual marriages, official gender changes can have implications for related rights and privileges, such as child custody, inheritance, and medical decision-making.[citation needed][citation needed]

[edit] Roots of heteronormative attitudes

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Heteronormativity is a way of describing social structures built around a certain gender model. Challenges to the label may result from a belief that the description of a structure as heteronormative implies that the normative structure is inherently wrong. One of the most common criticisms of the concept of heteronormativity is that it is based on a purported desire to be politically correct. An example of this was a footnote to a March 11, 2005, opinion article by Scott Norvell of FOX News which included a segment on a controversy over comments made by actress Jada Pinkett Smith at Harvard University, describing said controversy as "politically correct nuttiness".[17] When used as a criticism, it often implies that the use of such carefully chosen wording and terms is a form of repression of speech, although this implies that the articulation of important concepts is prevented or hindered by politically correct regulation of speech by intellectual elites.[citation needed]

However, this criticism represents a view that those who describe current social structures as heteronormative[who?] wish to undermine the fundamental assumption that sex and gender are naturally dichotomous.[citation needed] Another concern of critics is that challenges to heteronormativity render moot any justifications for heteronormative social structures, such as the appeal to natural law or certain religious notions.[citation needed] Such people may actually consider departures from the heteronormative structure (e.g., LGBTI -- lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and intersex) as abnormal, diseased, or immoral.[citation needed] Therefore, when social structures are described or criticized as being heteronormative, this may be seen as a challenge not only to the structures themselves, but to the underlying religious and philosophical justifications for the normality and the appropriateness of those structures.[citation needed]

The possible responses from those who subscribe to heteronormativity to individuals and groups who depart from heteronormative experience range from tolerance, pity, and shunning to attempts to help members of these groups gain normalcy through compassionate, forceful, or violent means. Events which have brought the idea of heteronormativity more into the foreground of social discourse, such as the Jada Pinkett Smith speech, do not necessarily represent such treatment. Ms Pinkett Smith's comments were not necessarily homophobic in that they did not represent active criticism of LGBTI people. However, her comments were heteronormative in that they made the assumption that normal relationships are only those which occur between a man and a woman. Critics that describe her speech as heteronormative stated, "Our position is that the comments weren’t homophobic, but the content was specific to male-female relationships."[18]

[edit] References

  1. ^ 1. Lovaas, Karen, and Mercilee M. Jenkins. “Charting a Path through the ‘Desert of Nothing.’” Sexualities and Communication in Everyday Life: A Reader. 8 July 2006. Sage Publications Inc. 5 May 2008 <http://books.google.com/books?isbn=1412914434>.
  2. ^ 1. Lovaas, Karen, and Mercilee M. Jenkins. “Charting a Path through the ‘Desert of Nothing.’” Sexualities and Communication in Everyday Life: A Reader. 8 July 2006. Sage Publications Inc. 5 May 2008 <http://books.google.com/books?isbn=1412914434>.
  3. ^ Warner, Michael (1991), "Introduction: Fear of a Queer Planet". Social Text; 9 (4 [29]): 3-17
  4. ^ Adrienne Rich, ‘Compulsory Heterosexuality and Lesbian Existence’ Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society, 5:631-60, 1980.
  5. ^ Samuel A. Chambers, ‘Telepistemology of the Closet; Or, the Queer Politics of Six Feet Under’. Journal of American Culture 26.1: 24-41, 2003
  6. ^ Samuel A. Chambers, "Revisiting the Closet: Reading Sexuality in Six Feet Under, in Reading Six Feet Under. McCabe and Akass, eds. IB Taurus, 2005.
  7. ^ Cathy J. Cohen. 'Punks, bulldaggers, and welfare queen: The radical potential of queer politics?' in Black Queer Studies. E. Patrick Johnson and Mae G. Henderson, eds. Duke UP, 2005. 24
  8. ^ Cathy J. Cohen. 'Punks, bulldaggers, and welfare queen: The radical potential of queer politics?' in Black Queer Studies. E. Patrick Johnson and Mae G. Henderson, eds. Duke UP, 2005. 26
  9. ^ Eve Kosofsky Sedgwick, The Epistemology of the Closet.
  10. ^ 4. “U.S. Religious Landscape Survey.” The Pew Forum on Religion and Public Life. 7 May 2008. 7 May 2008. <http://religions.pewforum.org/reports>.
  11. ^ 2. Peele, Thomas. Composition Studies, Heteronormativity, and Popular Culture. 2001 Boise State University. 5 May 2008. <http://www.bgsu.edu/cconline/peele/CulturalStudies.html>.
  12. ^ 3. Benfer, Amy. “The Nuclear Family Takes a Hit.” Salon.com 7 June 2001. 5 May 2008 http://archive.salon.com/mwt/feature/2001/06/07/family_values/index.html.
  13. ^ Dreyer,Yolanda. “Hegemony and the Internalisation of Homophobia Caused by Heteronormativity.” Department of Practical Theology. 2007. University of Pretoria.5 May 2008 < www.up.ac.za/dspace/bitstream/2263/2741/1/Dreyer_Hegemony(2007).pdf>.
  14. ^ 7. Gray, Brandon.“‘Brokeback Mountain’ most impressive of Tepid 2005.”Box Office Mojo, LLC. 25 February 2006. 7 May 2008. http://www.boxofficemojo.com/news/?id=2012&p=.htm.
  15. ^ Remembering Our Dead
  16. ^ SPLCenter.org: 'Disposable People'
  17. ^ FOXNews.com - Heteronormative Harassment, No Ladies Allowed - Blog | Blogs | Popular Blogs | Video Blogs
  18. ^ The Harvard Crimson :: News :: Pinkett Smith’s Remarks Debated

12. Lovaas, Karen, and Mercilee M. Jenkins. “Charting a Path through the ‘Desert of Nothing.’” Sexualities and Communication in Everyday Life: A Reader. 8 July 2006. Sage Publications Inc. 5 May 2008 <http://books.google.com/books?isbn=1412914434>. 13. “U.S. Religious Landscape Survey.” The Pew Forum on Religion and Public Life. 7 May 2008. 7 May 2008. <http://religions.pewforum.org/reports>. 14.Peele, Thomas. Composition Studies, Heteronormativity, and Popular Culture. 2001 Boise State University. 5 May 2008. <http://www.bgsu.edu/cconline/peele/CulturalStudies.html>. 15.Benfer, Amy. “The Nuclear Family Takes a Hit.” Salon.com 7 June 2001. 5 May 2008 http://archive.salon.com/mwt/feature/2001/06/07/family_values/index.html. 16.Dreyer,Yolanda. “Hegemony and the Internalisation of Homophobia Caused by Heteronormativity.” Department of Practical Theology. 2007. University of Pretoria.5 May 2008

          < www.up.ac.za/dspace/bitstream/2263/2741/1/Dreyer_Hegemony(2007).pdf>.

17.Gray, Brandon.“‘Brokeback Mountain’ most impressive of Tepid 2005.”Box Office Mojo, LLC. 25 February 2006. 7 May 2008. http://www.boxofficemojo.com/news/?id=2012&p=.htm.

[edit] See also

[edit] Further reading