Hebrew grammar
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- This article is about the grammar of Modern Hebrew. For information on the various historical forms of Hebrew, see Hebrew language.
Hebrew grammar is partly analytical, expressing such forms as dative, ablative, and accusative using prepositional particles rather than morphological cases. However, inflection plays a decisive role in the formation of the verbs, the declension of prepositions (i.e. with pronominal suffixes), and the genitive construct of nouns as well as the formation of the plural of nouns and adjectives.
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[edit] Note on the representation of Hebrew examples
Since this article is intended to be useful to non-Hebrew speakers, all examples of Hebrew are represented using the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA), a system of phonetic notation that provides a standardized, accurate and unique way of representing the sounds of any spoken language. This presents the complication that not all Hebrew speakers pronounce Hebrew the same; for example, many speakers (primarily Sephardi Jews) distinguish between the letters ח [χet] and כ [χaf], pronouncing the former as [ħ] and the latter as [χ], while many other speakers pronounce them both as [χ]. For each such variation, this article uses the first transcription given at Hebrew phonology, which strives to represent the pronunciation used by a majority of Israeli Hebrew-speakers today.
That being said, the IPA transcriptions have been slightly modified to incorporate some punctuation — hyphens, commas, and so on — indicating the structure of an example. Further, since the Hebrew writing system (its alphabet and niqqud) reflects not only phonology but also some grammar, Hebrew text is provided alongside IPA transcriptions in those cases where it has been deemed illustrative. (The Hebrew text may appear with or without niqqud, as the example requires.)
[edit] Sentence structure
Sentence structure in Hebrew is somewhat similar to that in English, but there are a number of differences. For example, the verb to be is not used in the present tense, resulting in a number of special present-tense structures.
[edit] Sentences with action verbs
As in English, most sentences have a subject, a verb, and possibly other arguments and complements. In this case, the word order is usually Subject-Verb-Object (SVO), like in English. However, word order can change in the following instances :
- An object can typically be topicalized by moving it to the front of the sentence. When the object is a question word, this topicalization is almost mandatory. Example : ?למי הוא אמר [lə'mi hu a'maʁ?], literally "To-whom he told?", means "Who did he tell?" In other cases, this topicalization can be used for emphasis. (See dislocation (syntax).)
- Hebrew is a pro-drop language. This means that subject pronouns are often omitted because verb conjugations usually reflect gender, number, and person.
- Indefinite subjects (like English's a boy, a book, and so on) are often postponed, giving the sentence some of the sense of "there exists [subject]" in addition to the verb's normal meaning. For example, פנה אליי איזשהו אדם שביקש שאעזור לו עם דבר-מה [pana e'laj eze'ʃehu 'adam, ʃe-bikeʃ ʃe-ee'zor lo im 'dvar-ma], literally "Faced-to-me some man that-asked-that-[I]-will-help to-him with something", means "A man came to me wanting me to help him with something." This serves a purpose somewhat analogous to English's narrative use of this with a semantically indefinite subject: "So, I'm at work, and this man comes up to me and asks me to help him." Indeed, outside of the present tense, mere existence is expressed using the verb to be with a postponed indefinite subject. Example: הייתה סיבה שביקשתי [haj'ta si'ba ʃe-bi'kaʃti], literally "Was reason that-[I]-asked", means "There's a reason I asked."
- Definite subjects can be postponed for a number of reasons.
- In some cases, a postponed subject can be used to sound formal or archaic. This is because historically, Hebrew was typically Verb-Subject-Object (VSO). The Bible and other religious texts are predominantly written in VSO word order.
- Sometimes, postponing a subject can give it emphasis. One response to התחל [hat'χel!] ("Start") might be התחל אתה [hat'χel a'ta!] ("You start!").
- A subject might initially be omitted and then added later as an afterthought, such as נעשה את זה ביחד אתה ואני [naa'se et 'ze bə'jaχad, a'ta vaa'ni], literally "[We]'ll-do it together, you and-I", means "You and I will do it together" or "We'll do it together, you and I".
Generally, Hebrew marks every noun in a sentence with some sort of preposition, with the exception of subjects and semantically indefinite direct objects. Unlike English, indirect objects require prepositions (as in "He gave me the ball"), and semantically definite direct objects are introduced by the preposition את [et].
[edit] Sentences with linking verbs
While the verb to be does have present-tense forms, they are used only in exceptional circumstances. The following structures are used instead.
- Where the past and future tenses follow the structure [sometimes-optional subject]-[form of to be]-[noun complement] (analogous to English, except that in English the subject is always mandatory), the present tense follows [optional subject]-[subject pronoun]-[noun complement].(הבן שלו הוא האבא שלה [ha'ben ʃe'lo hu ha-'aba ʃe'lah], literally "the-son of-his he the-father of-hers", means "his son is her father.") While לא [lo] ("not") precedes the copula (form of to be) in the past and future tenses, it follows the copula (a subject pronoun) in the present tense.
- Where the past and future tenses are structured as [optional subject]-[form of to be]-[adjective complement] (analogous to English, except that in English the subject is mandatory), the present tense is simply [subject]-[adjective complement]. For example, הדלת סגורה [ha-'delet sgu'ʁa], literally "the-door closed", means "the door is closed." That said, additional subject pronouns are sometimes used, like with noun complements, especially with complicated subjects. Example: זה מוזר שהוא אמר כך [ze mu'zaʁʃe-hu a'maʁ kaχ], literally " it strange that-he said thus", means "that he said that is strange," i.e. "it's strange that he said that."
- Where the past and future tenses are [form of to be]-[subject/direct object] (meaning "there was/were/will be [subject/direct object]"), the present tense uses the word יש [jeʃ] ("there is/are") to introduce the subject. Also, whereas the past- and future-tense forms prepend the word לא [lo] ("not") to form their opposites, the present-tense form replaces יש [jeʃ] with אין [ejn] ("there isn't/aren't"). In all tenses, an indirect object can follow יש or אין plus [form of to be] to indicate a possessor; English's "I have a car" is in Hebrew יש לי מכונית [jeʃ li məχo'nit] (literally "there-is to-me car").
[edit] Verbs
The Hebrew verb (פועל ['poal]) serves essentially the same functions as the English verb, but is constructed very differently. Hebrew verbs have much more internal structure. Every Hebrew verb is formed by casting a three- or four-consonant root (שורש ['ʃoʁeʃ]) into one of seven [binja'nim] (בניינים, meaning buildings or constructions; the singular is [bin'jan], written henceforth as binyan). Most roots can be cast into more than one binyan, meaning more than one verb can be formed from the typical root. When this is the case, the different verbs are usually related in meaning, typically differing in voice, valency, semantic intensity, aspect, or a combination of these features.
[edit] Conjugation
Each binyan has a certain pattern of conjugation and verbs in the same binyan are conjugated similarly. Nonetheless, there are some irregular verbs, and there are some patterns of exceptions. For example, most three-letter roots (triliterals) whose second letter is ו [vav] or י [jud] are so-called hollow roots, losing their second letter in binyan [hif'il], in [huf'al], and in much of [pa'al].
Every verb has a past tense, a present tense, a future tense, and a conditional mood, with the present tense doubling as a present participle. Other forms also exist for certain verbs: verbs in five of the binyanim have an imperative mood and an infinitive, verbs in four of the binyanim have gerunds, and verbs in one of the binyanim have a past participle. Finally, a very small number of fixed expressions include verbs in the jussive mood, which is essentially an extension of the imperative into the third person. Except for the infinitive and gerund, these forms are conjugated to reflect the number (singular or plural), person (first, second, or third) and gender (masculine or feminine) of its subject, depending on the form.
In listings such as dictionaries, Hebrew verbs are sorted by their third-person masculine singular past tense form. This differs from English verbs, which are identified by their infinitives. (Nonetheless, the Hebrew term for infinitive is shem po'al, which means verb name.) Further, each of the seven binyanim is identified by the third-person masculine singular past tense form of the root פ-ע-ל (P-'-L, meaning doing, action, etc.) cast into that binyan: [pa'al], [nif'al], [pi'el], [pu'al], [hif'il], [huf'al], and [hitpa'el].
[edit] Binyan pa'al
Binyan pa'al, also called binyan קל [kal] (light), is the most common binyan. Pa'al verbs are in the active voice, and can be either transitive or intransitive. This means that they may or may not take direct objects. Pa'al verbs are never formed from four-letter roots.
Binyan pa'al is the only binyan whose verbs have past participles. For example, רצוי [ra'tsui] (desirable) is the past participle of רצה [ra'tsa] (to want).
[edit] Binyan nif'al
Verbs in binyan nif'al are always intransitive, but beyond that there is little restriction on their range of meanings.
The nif'al is the passive-voice counterpart of pa'al. In principle, any transitive pa'al verb can be rendered passive by taking its root and casting it into nif'al. Nonetheless, this is not nif'al's main use, as the passive voice is fairly rare in ordinary Modern Hebrew.
More commonly, it is pa'al's middle- or reflexive-voice counterpart. English's ergative verbs often translate to Hebrew as a pa'al–nif'al pair. For example, English he broke the plate corresponds to Hebrew הוא שבר את הצלחת [hu ʃa'vaʁ et ha-tsa'laχat], using pa'al; but English the plate broke corresponds to Hebrew הצלחת נשברה [ha-tsa'laχat niʃbə'ʁa], using nif'al. The difference is that in the first case, there is an agent doing the breaking, while in the second case, the agent is ignored. (Nonetheless, like in English, it can still be made clear that there was an ultimate agent: הוא הפיל את הצלחת והיא נשברה [hu hi'pil et ha-tsa'laχat vəhi niʃbə'ʁa], he dropped the plate and it broke, uses nif'al.) Other examples of this kind include פתח [pa'taχ]/נפתח [nif'taχ] (to open, transitive/intransitive) and גמר [ga'maʁ]/נגמר [nig'maʁ] (to end, transitive/intransitive).
Other relationships between a pa'al verb and its nif'al counterpart can exist as well. One example is זכר [za'χaʁ] and נזכר [niz'kaʁ]: both mean to remember, but the latter implies that one had previously forgotten, rather like English to suddenly remember. Another is פגש [pa'gaʃ] and נפגש [nif'gaʃ]: both mean to meet, but the latter implies an intentional meeting, while the former often means to run into (in the non-literal sense).
Finally, sometimes a nif'al verb has no pa'al counterpart, or at least is much more common than its pa'al counterpart; נדבק [nid'bak] (to stick, intransitive) is a fairly common verb, but דבק [da'vak] (to cling) is all but non-existent by comparison. (Indeed, נדבק [nid'bak]'s transitive counterpart is הדביק [hid'bik], of binyan hif'il; see below.)
Like pa'al verbs, nif'al verbs are never formed from four-letter roots.
Nif'al verbs, like verbs in the other passive binyanim (pu'al and huf'al, described below), do not have gerunds but they do have infinitives and imperatives.
[edit] Binyan pi'el
Binyan pi'el, like binyan pa'al, consists of transitive and intransitive verbs in the active voice, though there is perhaps a greater tendency for pi'el verbs to be transitive.
Most roots with a pa'al verb do not have a pi'el verb, and vice versa, but even so, there are many roots that do have both. Sometimes the pi'el verb is a more intense version of the pa'al verb; for example, קיפץ [ki'pets] (to spring) is a more intense version of קפץ [ka'fats] (to jump), and שיבר [ʃi'beʁ] (to smash, to shatter, transitive) is a more intense version of שבר [ʃa'vaʁ] (to break, transitive). In other cases, a pi'el verb acts as a causative counterpart to the pa'al verb with the same root; for example, לימד [li'med] (to teach) is essentially the causative of למד [la'mad] (to learn). And in yet other cases, the nature of the relationship is less obvious; for example, ספר [sa'faʁ] means to count, while סיפר [si'peʁ] means to narrate (or to cut (hair)), and פתח [pa'taχ] means to open (transitive), while פיתח [pi'teaχ] means to develop (transitive).
[edit] Binyan pu'al
Binyan pu'al is the passive-voice counterpart of binyan pi'el. Unlike binyan nif'al, it is used only for the passive voice. It is therefore not very commonly used in ordinary speech, except that the present participles of a number of pu'al verbs are used as ordinary adjectives: מבולבל [məvul'bal] means mixed-up (from בולבל [bul'bal], the passive of בלבל [bil'bel], to confuse), מעוניין [məun'jan] means interested, מפורסם [məfuʁ'sam] means famous (from פורסם [puʁ'sam], the passive of פרסם [piʁ'sem], to publicize), and so on. (Indeed, the same is true of many pi'el verbs, including the pi'el counterparts of two of the above examples: מבלבל [məval'bel], confusing, and מעניין [məan'jen], interesting. The difference is that pi'el verbs are also frequently used as verbs, whereas pu'al is much less common.)
Pu'al verbs do not have gerunds, imperatives, or infinitives.
[edit] Binyan hif'il
Binyan hif'il is another active binyan. Hif'il verbs are often causative counterparts of verbs in other binyanim; examples include הכתיב [hiχ'tiv] (to dictate; the causative of כתב [ka'tav], to write), הדליק [hid'lik] (to turn on (a light), transitive; the causative of נדלק [nid'lak], (for a light) to turn on, intransitive), and הרשים [hiʁ'ʃim] (to impress; the causative of התרשם [hitʁa'ʃem], to be impressed). Nonetheless, not all are causatives of other verbs; for example, הבטיח [hiv'tiaχ] (to promise).
[edit] Binyan huf'al
Binyan huf'al is much like binyan pu'al, except that it corresponds to hif'il instead of to pi'el. Like pu'al, it is not commonly used in ordinary speech, except in present participles that have become adjectives, such as מוכר [mu'kaʁ] (familiar, from הוכר [hu'kaʁ], the passive of הכיר [hi'kiʁ], to know (a person)) and מוגזם [mug'zam] (excessive, from [hug'zam], the passive of הגזים [hig'zim], to exaggerate). Like pu'al verbs, huf'al verbs do not have gerunds, imperatives, or infinitives.
[edit] Binyan hitpa'el
Binyan hitpa'el is rather like binyan nif'al, in that all hitpa'el verbs are intransitive, and most have a reflexive sense. Indeed, many hitpa'el verbs are reflexive counterparts to other verbs with the same root; for example, התרחץ [hitʁa'χets] (to wash oneself, i.e. usually to bathe) is the reflexive of רחץ [ʁa'χats] (to wash, transitive), and התגלח [hitga'leaχ] (to shave oneself, i.e. to shave, intransitive) is the reflexive of גילח [gi'leaχ] (to shave, transitive). Some hitpa'el verbs are a combination of causative and reflexive; for example,הסתפר [hista'peʁ] (to get one's hair cut) is the causative reflexive of סיפר [si'peʁ] (to cut (hair)), and הצטלם [hitsta'lem] (to get one's picture taken) is the causative reflexive of צילם [tsi'lem] (to take a picture (of someone or something)).
Hitpa'el verbs can also be reciprocal; for example, התכתב [hitka'tev] (to write to each other, i.e. to correspond) is the reciprocal of כתב [ka'tav] (to write).
In all of the above uses, the hitpa'el verb contrasts with a pu'al or huf'al verb in two ways: firstly, the subject of the hitpa'el verb is generally either performing the action, or at least complicit in it, whereas the subject of the pu'al or huf'al verb is generally not; and secondly, pu'al and huf'al verbs often convey a sense of completeness, which hitpa'el verbs generally do not. So whereas the sentence אני מצולם [a'ni mətsu'lam] (I am photographed, using pu'al) means something like there exists a photo of me, implying that the photo already exists, and not specifying whether the speaker caused the photo to be taken, the sentence אני מצטלם [a'ni mitsta'lem] (I am photographed, using hitpa'el) means something like I'm having my picture taken, implying that the picture does not exist yet, and that the speaker is causing the picture to be taken.
In other cases, hitpa'el verbs are ordinary intransitive verbs; for example, התנהג [hitna'heg] (to behave), while structurally the reciprocal of נהג [na'hag] (to drive), is essentially a separate verb; in talking about a car that drove itself, one would say מכונית שנוהגת עצמה [məχo'nit ʃe-no'heget ats'ma] (a car that drives itself, using nahag), not מכונית שמתנהגת [məχo'nit ʃe-mitna'heget] (a car that behaves, using hitnaheg).
[edit] Nouns
The Hebrew noun (שם עצם [ʃem 'etsem] is inflected for number and state, but not for case. Nouns are generally related to verbs (by shared roots), but their formation is not as systematic, often due to loanwords from foreign languages.
[edit] Gender: masculine and feminine
Every noun in Hebrew has a gender, either masculine or feminine; for example, ספר ['sefeʁ] (book) is masculine, while דלת ['delet] (door) is feminine. There is not a strict system of formal gender, but there is a tendency for nouns ending in ת ([-t]) or ה (usually [-a]) to be feminine and for nouns ending in other letters to be masculine. There is a very strong tendency toward natural gender for nouns referring to people and some animals. Such nouns generally come in pairs, one masculine and one feminine; for example, איש [iʃ] means man and אישה [i'ʃa] means woman. (When discussing mixed-sex groups, the plural of the masculine noun is used.)
[edit] Number: singular, plural, and dual
Hebrew nouns are inflected for grammatical number; as in English, count nouns have a singular form for referring to one object and a plural form for referring to more than one. Unlike in English, some count nouns also have separate dual forms, for referring to two objects; see below.
Masculine nouns generally form their plural by adding the suffix ים [-im]:
- מחשב [maχ'ʃev] (computer) → מחשבים [maχʃe'vim] (computers)
The addition of the extra syllable often causes the vowel in the first syllable to shorten:
- דבר [da'vaʁ] (thing) → דברים [dva'ʁim] (things)
Many common two-syllable masculine nouns, called segolates because most (but not all) of them have the vowel [se'gol] ([-e-]) in both syllables, undergo more drastic characteristic vowel changes in the plural:
- ילד ['jeled] (boy) → ילדים [jəla'dim] (boys, children)
- בוקר ['bokeʁ] (morning) → בקרים [bka'ʁim (mornings)
- חדר ['χedeʁ] (room) → חדרים [χada'ʁim] (rooms)
Feminine nouns ending in [-a] or [-at] generally drop this ending and add [-ot], usually without any vowel changes:
- מיטה [mi'ta] (bed) → מיטות [mi'tot] (beds)
- מסעדה [misa'da] (restaurant) → מסעדות [misa'dot] (restaurants)
- צלחת [tsa'laχat] (plate) → צלחות [tsala'χot] (plates)
Nouns ending in [-et] also replace this ending with [-ot], with an [-e-] in the preceding syllable usually changing to [-a-]:
- מחברת [maχ'beʁet] (notebook) → מחברות [maχba'ʁot] (notebooks)
Nouns ending in [-ut] and [-it] replace these endings with [-ujot] and [-ijot], respectively:
- חנות [χa'nut] (store) → חנויות [χanu'jot] (stores)
- אשכולית [eʃko'lit] (grapefruit, singular) → אשכוליות [eʃkoli'jot] (grapefruit, plural)
[edit] Plural exceptions
A large number of masculine nouns take the usually-feminine ending [-ot] in the plural:
- מקום [ma'kom] (place) → מקומות [məko'mot] (places)
- חלון [χa'lon] (window) → חלונות [χalo'not] (windows)
A small number of feminine nouns take the usually-masculine ending [-im]:
- מילה [mi'la] (word) → מילים [mi'lim] (words)
- שנה [ʃa'na] (year) → שנים [ʃa'nim] (years)
Many plurals are completely irregular:
- עיר [iʁ] (city) → ערים [a'ʁim] (cities)
- עפרון [ipa'ʁon] (pencil) → עפרונות [efʁo'not] (pencils)
- איש [iʃ] (man) → אנשים [ana'ʃim] (men, people)
[edit] Dual
Hebrew also has a dual number, expressed in the ending [-ajim], but even in ancient times its use was very restricted. In modern times, it is usually used in expressions of time and number, or items that are inherently dual. These nouns have plurals as well, which are used for numbers higher than two, for example:
| Singular | Double | Triple |
|---|---|---|
| פעם אחת ['paam akhat] (once) | פעמיים [paa'majim] (twice) | שלוש פעמים [ʃa'loʃ pəa'mim] (thrice) |
| שבוע אחד [ʃa'vua ekhad] (one week) | שבועיים [ʃvu'ajim] (two weeks) | שלושה שבועות [ʃloʃa ʃvu'ot] (three weeks) |
| מאה ['mea] (one hundred) | מאתיים [ma'tajim] (two hundred) | שלוש מאות [ʃaloʃ me'ot] (three hundred) |
The dual is also used for some body parts, for instance:
- רגל ['ʁegel] (leg) → רגליים [ʁag'lajim] (legs)
- אוזן ['ozen] (ear) → אוזניים [oz'najim] (ears)
- עין ['ajin] (eye) → עיניים [ej'najim] (eyes)
- יד ['jad] (hand) → ידיים [ja'dajim] (hands)
In this case, even if there are more than two, the dual is still used, for instance [lə'kelev yeʃ 'aʁba ʁag'lajim] ("a dog has four legs").
The dual is also used for certain objects that are "inherently" dual. These words have no singular, for instance משקפיים [miʃka'fajim] (eyeglasses) and מספריים [mispa'ʁajim] (scissors). As in the English "two pairs of pants", the plural of these words uses the word זוג [zug] (pair), e.g. [ʃnej zu'got mispa'ʁajim] ("two pairs-of scissors-DUAL").
The name of the city גבעתיים Givataim (Тwo Peaks, or Twin Peaks) is an atypical use of the dual number.
[edit] Noun construct
Hebrew's genitive case is achieved by placing two nouns next to each other. This is called a noun construct (סמיכות [smi'χut]). The second noun can be viewed as an adjective modifying the first noun.
The first noun in a noun construct must be in its construct form. For most nouns, the construct form is derived fairly easily from the normal (indefinite) form:
- The singular of a masculine noun typically does not change form.
- The plural of a masculine noun typically replaces the suffix ים- [-im] with the suffix י- [-ej].
- The singular of a feminine noun ending in ה- [-a] typically replaces that ה with a ת [-at].
- The plural of a feminine noun typically does not change form.
There are many words (usually ancient ones) that have changes in vocalization in the construct form. For example, the construct form of ['bajit] (house) is [bejt].
In addition, the definite article is never placed on the first noun (the one in the construct form).
- בית ספר [bejt 'sefer] (literally, house-of book or bookhouse, i.e. school)
- בית הספר [bejt ha-'sefer] (literally, house-of the-book, i.e. the school)
- בתי חולים [ba'tej χo'lim] (literally, houses-of sick-people, i.e. hospitals)
- עוגת השוקולד [ugat ha-ʃokolad] (the chocolate cake)
- דואר אוויר ['doaʁ a'viʁ] (air mail)
- כלב רחוב ['kelev ʁə'χov] (street dog)
- בקבוק החלב [bak'buk he-χa'lav] (the bottle of milk)
However, this rule is not always adhered to in colloquial speech, as for example העורך דין (literally the law organiser, i.e. lawyer).
[edit] Possession
Possession is generally indicated using the preposition [ʃel] (של, of or belonging to):
- הספר שלי [ha-'sefeʁ ʃe'li] (literally the-book of-me, i.e. my book)
- הדירה שלך [ha-di'ʁa ʃel'kha] (your apartment).
- המשחק של אנדר [ha-mis'χak ʃel 'endeʁ] (Ender's Game)
In literary style, nouns are inflected to show possession through noun declension; a personal suffix is added to the construct form of the noun (discussed above). So, ספרי [sif'ʁej] (books of) can be inflected to form ספריי [sif'ʁaj] (my books),ספריך [sif'ʁeχa] (your books), ספרנו [sif'ʁenu] (our books), and so forth, while דירת [di'ʁat] (apartment of) gives דירתי [diʁa'ti] (my apartment), דירתך [diʁat'χa] (your apartment),דירתנו [diʁa'tenu] (our apartment), etc.
While the use of these forms is mostly restricted to formal and literary speech, they are in regular use in some colloquial phrases, such as ?מה שלומך [ma ʃlom'χa?] (literally "what peace-of-you?", i.e. "what is your peace?", i.e. "how are you?") or לדעתי [lədaa'ti] (in my opinion).
In addition, the inflected possessive is commonly used for terms of kinship; for instance,בני [bni] (my son), בתם [bi'tam] (their daughter), and אשתו [iʃ'to] (his wife) are preferred to הבן שלי [ha-'ben ʃeli], הבת שלהם [ha-'bat ʃelahem], and האישה שלו [ha-i'ʃa ʃelo]. However, usage differs for different registers and sociolects: In general, the colloquial will use more analytic constructs in place of noun declensions.
[edit] Noun derivation
In the same way that Hebrew verbs are conjugated by applying various prefixes, suffixes and internal vowel combinations, Hebrew nouns can be formed by applying various "meters" (Hebrew [miʃka'lim]) to the same roots. Gerunds are one example (see above).
Many abstract nouns are derived from another noun, or from a verb (usually one in binyan hitpa'el) using the suffix [-ut]:
- ספר ['sefeʁ] (book) → ספרות [sif'ʁut] (literature)
- התייעץ [hitja'ets] (to consult) → התייעצות [hitjaa'tsut] (advice)
- התרגש [hitʁa'geʃ] (to get excited) → התרגשות [hitʁag'ʃut] (excitement)
The [kat'lan] meter, applied to a verb, indicates "someone who does this":
- שיקר [ʃi'keʁ] (to lie) → שקרן [ʃak'ʁan] (liar)
- פחד [pa'χad] (to be afraid) → פחדן [paχ'dan] (coward)
The suffix [-on] denotes a smaller version of something:
- ספר ['sefeʁ] (book) → ספרון [sif'ʁon] (booklet)
- מחשב [maχ'ʃev] (computer) → מחשבון [maχʃe'von] (calculator)
Repeating the last two letters of a noun or adjective can also denote a smaller or lesser version:
- כלב ['kelev] (dog) → כלבלב [klav'lav] (puppy)
- קצר [ka'tsaʁ] (short) → קצרצר [ktsaʁ'tsaʁ] (very short)
The [ka'telet] mishkal can have a variety of meanings:
- אדום [a'dom] (red) → אדמת [a'demet] (measles)
- כלב ['kelev] (dog) → כלבת [ka'levet] (rabies)
- נייר [ni'jaʁ] (paper) → ניירת [na'jeʁet] (paperwork)
- כסף ['kesef] (money) → כספת [ka'sefet] (a safe)
New nouns are also often formed by the combination of two existing stems:
- קול [kol] (sound) + נוע ['noa] (motion) → קולנוע [kol'noa] (cinema)
- רמז ['ʁemez] (hint) + אור [oʁ] (light) → רמזור [ʁam'zoʁ] (traffic light)
A combination of methods (the example has the kat'lan meter plus the ending [-ut]):
- תועלת [to'elet] (benefit) → תועלתנות [toalta'nut] (utilitarianism)
[edit] Adjectives
In Hebrew, an adjective (שם תואר [ʃem toaʁ]) comes after the noun and agrees with it in gender and number:
- ספר קטן ['sefeʁ ka'tan] (a small book)
- ספרים קטנים [sfa'ʁim kta'nim] ( small books)
- בובה קטנה [bu'ba kta'na] (a small doll)
- בובות קטנות [bu'bot kta'not] (small dolls)
Adjectives ending in -i have slightly different forms:
- איש מקומי [iʃ mko'mi] (a local man)
- אישה מקומית [i'ʃa mko'mit] (a local woman)
- אנשים מקומיים [ana'ʃim mkomi'jim] (local people)
- נשים מקומיות [na'ʃim mkomi'jot] (local women)
Masculine nouns that take the "feminine" plural ending [-ot] still take masculine plural adjectives, e.g. מקומות יפים [mko'mot ja'fim] (beautiful places). The reverse goes for feminine plural nouns ending in [-im], e.g. מילים ארוכות [mi'lim aʁu'kot] (long words).
Note also that many adjectives, like segolate nouns, change their vowel structure in the feminine and plural.
[edit] Use of the definite article with adjectives
In Hebrew, unlike in English, an attributive adjective takes the definite article if it modifies a definite noun (either a proper noun, or a definite common noun).
In the case of a proper noun, the adjective can be interpreted as an appositive noun; for example, contrast the following:
- דוד הגדול [da'vid ha-ga'dol] (David the Great, lit. David the-great (m.sing.))
- דוד המלך [da'vid ha-'meleχ] (David the King, lit. David the-king)
[edit] Adjectives derived from verbs
Many adjectives in Hebrew are derived from the present tense of verbs. These adjectives are inflected the same way as the verbs they are derived from:
- סוער [so'eʁ] (stormy, pa'al) → סוערת [so'eʁet], סוערים [soa'ʁim], סוערות [soa'ʁot]
- מנותק [mənu'tak] (alienated, pu'al) → מנותקת [mənu'teket], מנותקים [mənuta'kim], מנותקות [mənuta'kot]
- מרשים [maʁ'ʃim] (impressive, hif'il) → מרשימה [maʁʃi'ma], מרשימים [maʁʃi'mim], מרשימות [maʁʃi'mot]
[edit] Adverbs
The Hebrew term for adverb is תואר הפועל ['toaʁ ha-'poal].
Hebrew forms adverbs in several different ways.
Some adjectives have corresponding one-word adverbs. In many cases, the adverb is simply the adjective's masculine singular form:
- חזק [χa'zak] (strong or strongly)
- ברור [ba'ʁuʁ] (clear or clearly)
In other cases, the adverb has a distinct form:
- מהר [ma'heʁ] (quickly; from the adjective מהיר [ma'hiʁ], quick)
- לאט [lə'at] (slowly; from the adjective איטי [i'ti], slow)
Most adjectives, however, do not have corresponding one-word adverbs; rather, they have corresponding adverb phrases, formed using one of the following approaches:
- using the prepositional prefix ב [bə-] (in) with the adjective's corresponding abstract noun:
- בזהירות [bəzehi'ʁut] (in carefulness, i.e. carefully)
- בעדינות [bəadi'nut] (in gentleness, i.e. gently)
- using the same prefix, but with the noun אופן ['ofen] (a nature/fashion), and modifying the noun with the adjective's masculine singular form:
- באופן אטי [bə'ofen i'ti] ("in slow fashion", i.e. "slowly").
- similarly, but with the noun צורה [tsu'ʁa] (form), and using the adjective's feminine singular form:
- בצורה אופיינית [bətsu'ʁa of'janit] (in characteristic form, i.e. characteristically).
The use of one of these methods does not necessarily preclude the use of the others; for example, slowly may be either לאט [lə'at] (a one-word adverb), or באטיות [bəiti'ut] (literally in slowness; a somewhat more elegant way of expressing the same thing), בלאט [belə'at] (an even more elegant way of rendering the same), or באופן אטי [bə'ofen i'ti] ("in slow fashion", i.e. "slowly"), as mentioned above.
Finally, like in English, there are various adverbs that do not have corresponding adjectives at all:
- לכן [la'χen] (therefore)
- ככה ['kaχa] (this way)
[edit] Prepositions
Like English, Hebrew is primarily a prepositional language, with a large number of prepositions. Several of Hebrew's most common prepositions, however, unlike any of English's, are prefixes rather than separate words; for example, English in the room is Hebrew בחדר [ba-'χedeʁ].
[edit] Direct objects
The preposition את [et] plays an important role in Hebrew grammar. Its most common use is to introduce a direct object; for example, English I see the book is in Hebrew אני רואה את הספר [a'ni ro'e et ha-'sefeʁ] (literally I see [et] the-book). However, את [et] is used only with semantically definite direct objects, such as nouns with the, proper nouns, and personal pronouns; with semantically indefinite direct objects, it is simply omitted: אני רואה ספר ani ro'e sefer (I see a book) does not use את [et]. This has no direct translation into English, and is best described as an object particle — that is, it denotes that the word it precedes is the direct object of the verb.
Finally, את [et] has a number of special uses; for example, when the adjective צריך [tsa'ʁiχ] (in need (of)) takes a definite noun complement, it uses the preposition את [et]: היית צריך את זה [ha'jiti tsa'ʁiχ et ze] (literally I-was in-need-of [et] this, i.e. I needed this). Here as elsewhere, the את [et] is dropped with an indefinite complement: היו צריכים יותר [ha'ju tsʁe'χim jo'teʁ] (literally were in-need-of more, i.e. they needed more). This is perhaps related to the verb-like fashion in which the adjective is used.
In Biblical Hebrew, there is possibly another use of 'et. Waltke and O'Connor (pp177-178) make the point:"...(1) ...sign of the accusative ... (2) More recent grammarians regard it as a marker of emphasis used most often which definite nouns in the accusative role. The apparent occurrences with the nominative are most problematic ... AM Wilson late in the nineteenth century concluded from his exhaustive study of all the occurrences of the debated particle that it had an intensive or reflexive force in some of its occurences. Many grammarians have followed his lead. (reference lists studies of 1955, 1964, 1964, 1973, 1965, 1909, 1976.) On such a view, eth is a weakened emphatic particle corresponding to the English pronoun 'self' ... It resembles Greek 'autos' and latin 'ipse' both sometimes used for emphasis, and like them it can be omitted from the text, without obscuring the grammar. This explanation of the particle's meaning harmonizes well with the facts that the particle is used in Michnaic Hebrew as a demonstrative and is found almost exclusively with determinate nouns."
[edit] Indirect objects
Indirect objects are objects requiring a preposition other than את [et]. The preposition used depends on the verb, and these can be very different from the one used in English. A good dictionary is required to look these up. In the case of definite indirect objects, the preposition will replace את [et].
- אני שכחתי מהבחירות [ani ʃa'χaχti me-ha-bχi'rot] (I forgot about the election)
The Hebrew grammar distinguishes between various kinds of indirect objects, according to what they specify. Thus, there is a division between objects for time תיאור זמן ([te'uʁ zman]), objects for place תיאור מקום ([te'uʁ ma'kom]), objects for reason תיאור סיבה ([te'uʁ si'ba]) and many others.
In Hebrew, there are no distinct prepositional pronouns; if the object of a preposition is a pronoun, but the preposition contracts with the object, and the inflected preposition thus formed can be considered the indirect object of the sentence.
- We spoke to David (dibarnu le-Daveed) = דברנו לדוד
- We spoke to him (dibarnu lo) = דברנו לו
As mentioned above, the direct object is often rendered with the word את (et). Et is excluded only when the direct object is a non-definite noun.
- We protected David (shmarnu et Daveed) = שמרנו את דוד
- We protected him (shmarnu oto) = שמרנו אותו
[edit] Miscellaneous
[edit] Pronominal suffix
There is a form called the verbal pronominal suffix, in which a pronoun direct object can be rendered as an additional suffix onto the verb-form. This form allows for a high degree of word economy, as the single fully-conjugated verb expresses the verb, its voice, its subject, its object, and its tense.
- We protected him (shmarnuhu) = שמרנוהו
In modern usage, the verbal pronominal suffices are rarely used, in favor of expression of direct objects as the inflected form of the separate word, et. It is used more commonly in biblical and poetic Hebrew (for instance, in prayers).
[edit] Impersonal sentences
A sentence may lack a subject. In this case it is called סתמי [sta'mi], or indefinite. If several parts of the sentence have the same function and are attached to the same word, they are called כולל [ko'lel], or collective. Two or more sentences that do not share common parts and are separated by comma are called משפט מחובר [miʃ'pat məχu'baʁ], or joined sentences. In many cases, the second sentence uses a pronoun that stands for the other's subject; they are generally interconnected.
[edit] Subordinate clauses
Like English, Hebrew allows clauses פסוקיות ([psuki'jot]) to serve as parts of a sentence. A sentence containing a subordinate clause is called a משפט מורכב [miʃ'pat muʁ'kav]. Subordinate clauses almost always begin with the conjunction ש [ʃe-] (usually that), which attaches as a prefix to the word that follows it. For example, in the sentence יוסי אומר שהוא אוכל ['josi o'meʁ ʃe-'hu o'χel] (Yosi says that he is eating), the subordinate clause שהוא אוכל [ʃe-'hu o'χel] (that he is eating) serves as the direct object of the verb אומר [o'meʁ] (says). Unlike English, Hebrew does not have a large number of subordinating conjunctions; rather, subordinate clauses almost always act as nouns and can be introduced by prepositions in order to serve as adverbs. For example, the English As I said, there's nothing we can do in Hebrew is כפי שאמרתי, אין מה לעשות [kə'fi ʃe-a'maʁti, ejn ma laa'sot] (literally Like that-I-said, there-isn't what to-do).
That said, relative clauses, which act as adjectives, are also formed using ש [ʃe-]. For example, English Yosi sees the man who is eating apples is in Hebrew יוסי רואה את האיש שאוכל תפוחים ['josi ro'e et ha-'iʃ ʃe-o'χel tapu'χim] (literally Yosi sees [et] the-man that-eats apples). In this use ש [ʃe-] sometimes acts as a relativizer rather than as a relative pronoun; that is, sometimes the pronoun remains behind in the clause: היא מכירה את האיש שדיברתי עליו [hi maki'ʁa et ha-'iʃ ʃe-di'baʁti a'lav], which translates to She knows the man I talked about, literally means She knows [et] the-man that-I-talked about him. This is because in Hebrew, a preposition (in this case על [al]) cannot appear without its object, so the him יו ([-av]) could not be dropped.
[edit] References
- Bolozky, Shmuel. 501 Hebrew Verbs. Barron's Educational Series, Inc.. ISBN 0-8120-9468-9.
- Glinert, Lewis. Modern Hebrew: An Essential Grammar, 3rd edition, Routledge UK. ISBN 0-415-70082-5.
- Waltke, Bruce K.; M. O'Connor (1990). An introduction to Biblical Hebrew Syntax. Eisenbrauns, Winona Lake Indiana, pp. 177-178.
[edit] See also
[edit] External links
- Foundationstone — Online Hebrew Tutorial
- Hebrew is easy, by Babel
- Learning Hebrew, Young Israel (most of the links leading to language learning are now dead links)
- A Basic Introduction to Hebrew grammar
- History of the Ancient and Modern Hebrew Language, David Steinberg
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