Heavy cavalry
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Heavy cavalry refers to heavily armed and armoured mounted troops, as opposed to medium or light cavalry, in which the riders are relatively lightly-armoured. The origins of heavy cavalry, a near impossibility before saddle and stirrup, lie in Parthian and Sassanid Persia. Through the course of the Roman-Persian Wars, the Romans adopted much of the Persian tradition and this Roman cavalry continued in existence as part of the Byzantine army until the end of the Middle Ages. In the Middle Ages, heavy cavalry developed independently in Western Europe. Many Germanic peoples had a history of cavalry and the introduction of stirrups allowed for the increase in the weight of a rider's armour. In Francia, these men-at-arms became known as knights and the tradition of chivalry dominated European warfare until the Renaissance. Today, heavy cavalry has been replaced through mechanisation, mostly by tanks.
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[edit] History of the heavy cavalry
[edit] Antiquity
[edit] Greeks
The ancient Greeks called the heavy armoured cavalry kataphraktoi. The term was later borrowed by the Romans and from there it continued to be used until the Middle Ages in Europe, to designate heavily-armoured cavalry. Among the most famous representatives of ancient Greek heavy cavalry were the companion cavalry of Alexander the Great and the Diadochi. During the latter period, the armour of these shock troops even increased.
[edit] Persians
Ammianus Marcellinus, a Roman general and historian, who served in the army of Constantius II in Gaul and Persia, fought against the Persians under Julian the Apostate and took part in the retreat of his successor, Jovian. He describes the Persian knight as:
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- "All their companies clad in iron, and all parts of their bodies were covered with thick plates, so fitted that the stiff joints conformed with those of their limbs; and forms of the human faces were so skillfully fitted to their heads, that since their entire bodies were covered with metal, arrows that fell upon them could lodge only where they could see a little through tiny openings opposite the pupil of the eye, or where through the tips of their noses they were able to get a little breath."
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- "The Persians opposed us serried bands of mail-clad horsemen in such close order that the gleam of moving bodies covered with closely fitting plates of iron dazzled the eyes of those who looked upon them, while the whole throng of horses was protected by coverings of leather. "
[edit] Sarmatians
Up to the fifth century, Sarmatians cavalry units were stationed in Britain as part of the Roman army (see Roman departure from Britain), allowing for a direct influence of Roman cataphracts on Migration Period Europe. According to a theory of Littleton and Thomas (1978), the legend of King Arthur, the prototypical knight of High Medieval literature, was directly inspired by these Sarmatian troops (however, it is most likely that the only reason we view Arthur and his retainers as knights was simply because the Arthurian Cycle became popular in a time in which knighthood was predominant); and Sir Thomas Malory's descriptions reflect his own time, in which the plate-wearing tournament knight was again prevalent.
[edit] Romans
The roots of the cataphract probably lay with the nomad peoples of the steppes; their heavy cavalry traditions (reserved for their nobility) were probably passed onto the sedentary peoples of the ancient Near East. The western Greeks then first encountered heavily armoured cavalry during their wars with the Persian Empire. The Romans learned cavalry techniques from the Greeks and thus heavy cavalry traditions made their way to the West, where they were epitomised by the knights of western Europe.
Equipment and tactics varied, but cataphracts generally wore heavy armor of scale armour, mail, lamellar armour, horn, or thick quilted cloth, carried a shield, sat on an armoured horse, and charged with lances (kontos) in a tight knee-to-knee formation.
[edit] Middle Ages
- See also: Medieval horses
[edit] Byzantines
Byzantine cataphracts were a much feared force in their heyday. The army of Emperor Nicephorus II, the 'Pale Death of the Saracens' himself, relied on its cataphracts as its nucleus, coupling cataphract archers with cataphract lancers to create a self-perpetuating 'hammer blow' tactic where the cataphract lancers would charge again and again until the enemy broke, all the while supported by cataphract archers.
Contemporary depictions however imply that they were not as completely armoured as earlier Roman and Sassanid types — horse armour is noticeably absent. Byzantine cataphracts of the 10th century were drawn from the ranks of the middle class landowners through the theme system, providing the Byzantine Empire with a motivated and professional force. An experimental type of cataphract was brought to the fore in the 10th and 11th centuries known as the klibanaphoros — named after the clibanarius and a throwback to the super-heavy cavalry of earlier days. However, the traditional view is that after the loss of prestige, men and material and the horse-rearing plains of Anatolia after they lost the decisive Battle of Manzikert to lighter Turk cavalry, they slowly dropped out of use.
But according to J. Birkenmeier in "The development of the Komnenian army: 1081-1180", units of 'Kataphraktoi' (cataphracts) were still being used during the twelfth century. The Komnenian restoration of the Byzantine Empire during that century created a new kind of Byzantine army, which is known as the Komnenian army. Yet it seems that the cataphract was eventually superseded by other types of heavy cavalry. The emperor Manuel I Komnenos, for example, re-equipped his elite cavalry in the style of western knights.
It is difficult to determine when exactly the cataphract saw his final day. After all, cataphracts and knights both fulfilled a similar role on the medieval battlefield, and the armoured knight survived well into the modern age. The Byzantine army maintained units of heavily armoured cavalrymen up to its last years, while neighbouring Bulgars, Lithuanians, Serbs, Russian states and other eastern European peoples emulated Byzantine military equipment.
[edit] Knights
In the early Middle Ages the rank of knight was loosely defined. In late Carolingian France (10th Century) persons occupying this role were known by the Latin term miles (plur. milites). This term designated a professional fighting man in the emerging feudal system. Many were as poor as the peasant class. However, over time, as this class of fighter became more prominent in post-Carolingian France, they became wealthier and began to hold and inherit land. Eventually fighting on horseback became synonymous with the elite warrior caste.
A full charge of knights was for a long period a shock attack that most armies on an open field could not resist. Their many notable successes include the Battle of Hastings (1066, charging uphill) and the early Crusades, where small numbers of knights were often able to disrupt and/or rout the much larger Muslim forces. The Frankish knights are often considered the most powerful knights during this period, as well as in history.
From the 12th century on, the concept continued being tied to cavalry, mounted and armoured soldiers, and thus to the earlier class of noble Roman warriors known as equites (see esquire). Because of the cost of equipping oneself in the cavalry, the term became associated with wealth and social status, and eventually knighthood became a formal title. Significantly the nobility, who at this time were also expected to be leaders in times of war, responded to this new class by becoming members of it. Nobles had their sons trained as gentlemen and as professional fighters in the household of another noble. When the young man had completed his training he was ready to become a knight, and would be honoured as such in a ceremony known as "dubbing" (knighting) from the French "adoubement". It was expected that all young men of noble birth be knights and often take oaths swearing allegiance, chastity, protection of other Christians, and respect of the laws laid down by their forebears, though this varied from period to period and on the rank of the individual. (How strictly these oaths were followed also varied on the knight: many were merely heavily armed ruffians.)
[edit] Africa and Asia
The Mongol light cavalry were an unstoppable force across Asia and Eastern Europe until the heavy cavalry of the Egyptian Mamelukes decisively defeated them at the Battle of Ain Jalut in 1260.
Muslim military advances in Sub-Saharan Africa relied heavily on heavy cavalry, playing a similar role to that in Medieval Europe.
In China, heavy cavalry, in which both soldier and steed are clad in complete armour, were employed since the 4th century A.D. , and it was the main power of the armies of the northern dynasties of China, 4th century to 6th century. During the Tang dynasty, as the importance of lighter-armed cavalry and infantry increased, and that of the heavy cavalry decreased, the horse-armours were seldom used. However, heavy cavalry were again used by the Song dynasty and its enemies including Jin, Xixia, Mongols, Khitans.
In Korea, the earliest evidence of heavy cavalry is a mural painting drawn in the mid-4th century A.D., Koguryo. Lamellar armours were used for both men and horses, with the soldiers carrying lances. Another mural painting of Koguryo shows a heavy cavalryman wielding his lance using both hands, unlike the couched-lance used by medieval european knights. A clay figure of Shilla is shown depicting a heavy cavalryman with shield and lance. Recently, a Baekje drawing that describes a figure that seems to be a heavy cavalryman, was found. During the Chosun dynasty, the heavy cavalry like that of the early Koguryo, was no more used. As for the Koryo dynasty, although contact with Khitans, Jin, and the Mongols might have motivated the dynasty to use same heavy cavalry, both pictorial and literary evidence are rather poor on this matter.
[edit] Renaissance and beyond
Heavy cavalry, in the form of the Gendarme, was actually at its highest as a proportion of the total number of combatants, in many Renaissance armies, especially in France.
Later, the Cuirassier was the main form, beginning in 1484 with the 100-man strong regiments of Austrian kyrissers for the Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian. They fought in the Thirty Years War, killing the Swedish king Gustavus Adolphus at the 1632 Battle of Lützen. The French introduced their own cuirassiers in 1666. By 1705, the Holy Roman Emperor's personal forces in Austria included twenty cuirassier regiments. Imperial Russia formed its own cuirassier regiments in 1732, including a Leib Guards regiment. The Russian cuirassier units took part in the Russo-Turkish War.
Cuirassiers played a prominent role in the armies of Frederick the Great of Prussia and of Napoleon I of France. The latter increased the number of French cuirassier regiments to fourteen by the end of his reign, although they gradually declined in importance as the firepower and accuracy of the muskets and rifles of the infantrymen increased.
Eastern Europe saw the emergence of winged hussars that proved a decisive factor in territorial gains of Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and its wars with Sweden, Muscovy and Ottoman Turks.
