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The 57 navigational stars are used in celestial navigation, because they are some of the brightest celestial objects due to their high luminosities and/or because they are nearby. These 57 stars are practically a subset of the list of brightest stars and are defined by convention and nautical tradition.
One of the most prominent books on maritime navigation, Nathaniel Bowditch's American Practical Navigator, was the first to list these 57 navigational stars in 1802, and they are still included in the 2002 bicentennial edition of the same book. [1] They are also commonly listed on a page in the nautical almanac to aid navigators, typically on a tear-sheet that then serves as a bookmark throughout the year and is placed on the almanac page for the current 3-day period.[2]
By convention, these 57 stars are numbered and listed West to East, i.e. by descending Sidereal Hour Angle (SHA). Also, the nautical almanac typically only provides declination to the nearest full degree in this list, since that is typically sufficient for locating the star with a sextant.
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[edit] Some notable boats
Some ships became famous after a special event or because of their characteristics. We can find some areas where vessels have become famous shipwrecks and the world of rescue partner; ships having dimensions or exceptional technical characteristics; vessels associated with a human achievement or a record; vessels associated with a legend or an anecdote.
[edit] Shipwrecks
If it happens every year dozens of shipwrecks [18], the most notable are those leading to a human or ecological catastrophe. The largest maritime disaster was the sinking of the Wilhelm Gustloff (liner) resulting in the deaths of more than 9000 people in 1945, during the Second World War, followed by the sinking of the Cap Arcona with about 8000 dead. In peacetime, the most catastrophic would be that of the Titanic in 1912 (over 1500 deaths), which is widely publicized because of the supposedly "unsinkable" ship. The Empress of Ireland which sank in May 1914 in the St. Lawrence led meanwhile, the death of 1,012 people who made it the second largest maritime disaster. However, the tragedies of the Joola in 2002 (nearly 2000 victims) and the Doña Paz in 1987 (1565 victims officially but unofficially 4000) would be worse.
Among the notable shipwrecks, it can still quote the Lancastria in 1940 3000-1120 carrying the heir to the throne of England, Medusa whose raft inspired a famous Vasa, which sank at its launch in 1628 because it was overloaded in part out of the water. Other wrecks are not necessarily a human catastrophe caused widespread but have brought profound changes in the maritime regulations: apart from the Titanic which resulted in the code Solas is the Herald of Free Enterprise (watertight doors on the roll-on/roll-off ), the Amoco Cadiz (contract rescue), the MV Derbyshire (structure of bulk carriers) or the Exxon Valdez (double hulls on tankers). The Blue Marlin bearing the USS Cole The Blue Marlin bearing the USS Cole
Oil spills caused by the sinking of a tanker can cause severe environmental damage. The largest oil spill from a ship is the Atlantic Empress in 1979 with 287000 tons of oil. However, the worst disasters are those that occur close to the coast, like the Amoco Cadiz or Erika France, the Exxon Valdez in the United States, the Prestige in Spain or the Torrey Canyon in England. The chemical also represent a major risk to the environment as with the Ievoli Sun in 2004. Finally, submarines with nuclear plants pose a risk of contamination, as the K-141 Kursk or Komsomolets.
The means of rescue workers may also be impressive and dedicated employ means: rescue boats often attract admiration from the public, as well as the high seas tugs or salvage, such as bee or Abeille Bourbon Flanders France and the semi-submersible vessel Blue Marlin.
[edit] Technical characteristics
The vessel both the longest and heaviest is the supertanker Knock Nevis to 458 m in length overall, and a displacement of 647955 tonnes, since it navigates more, the longest vessel activity is the Emma container carriers Mærsk. The biggest double hull oil tanker is the Hellespont Fairfax of 380 m long and 441585 dwt. The largest bulk carrier is the Berge Stahl of 343 m long and 364768 dwt. The longest is the liner Queen Mary 2 to 345 m, while the largest is the Freedom of the Seas of 158000 tonnes for 4000 passengers. The longest warship is the American aircraft carrier USS Enterprise (342 m) while the heavier are those of the Nimitz class as the USS Carl Vinson (104000 tonnes). The largest motor yacht is the Sheikh of Dubai, Golden Sun of 160 m. The longest yacht ever built is the France II, while Royal Clipper is the largest sailing. The Statsraad Lehmkuhl is the oldest and largest three-masted square.
Other boats are notable for their advanced techniques: thus, the Pyroscaphe is the first steamboat in 1783, the Nautilus Robert Fulton is the first submarine in 1800 and the Great Eastern in 1858 is the first giant ocean liner; Dreadnought in 1908 is the first modern battleship, and the first to use a steam turbine; another USS Nautilus is the first nuclear-powered vessel in 1951. The levitation by hydrofoils is led by Hydrofoil; propulsion turbovoiles by Alcyone.
The world's largest supertanker ever was built in 1979 at as the Oppama Shipyard of Sumitomo Heavy Industries, Ltd. as the Seawise Giant. This ship was built with a capacity of 564,763 DWT, a length overall of 458.45 metres (1,504.1 ft) and a draft of 24.611 metres (80.74 ft).[3] She has 46 tanks, 31,541 square metres (339,500 sq ft) of deck, and is too large to pass through the English Channel.[4]
Seawise Giant was renamed Happy Giant in 1989, Jahre Viking in 1991.[3] From 1979 to 2004, she was owned by Loki Stream AS, at which point she was bought by First Olsen Tankers Pte. Ltd., renamed Knock Nevis and converted into a permanently moored storage tanker.[3][4]
[edit] Human exploits and exploration
Vessels of exploration differ because their crew reaches its goal sometimes in conditions dantesques using means that now seem ridiculous. Christopher Columbus reached America in 1492 aboard the carrack Santa Maria, aided by the caravels La Niña and La Pinta. Ferdinand Magellan's Victoria was the first vessel to circumnavigate the earth. Roald Amundsen went to Antarctica aboard the Belgica then the Fram --HUH?-- ;
- La Boudeuse use Bougainville,
- Dumont d'Urville sailed on L'Astrolabe,
- Baudin expedition set off in the Geographer,
- Darwin travelled on the HMS Beagle, and
- Charcot used the series of vessels named Pourquoi Pas?
In American history, the Mayflower brought the first settlers of England in North America, while Hermione led the Marquis de La Fayette in the Americas during the war of independence. It may also be noted the exploits of some lonely sailors, including Joshua Slocum who performs the first round the world alone on board the yacht Spray, Marcel Bardiaux or sailfish Joshua Bernard Moitessier that remains a benchmark for sailboat sea.
[edit] Ships in the arts
The world of shipping has inspired some artistic genres own songs as sailors or marines, but the boats have also been a source of inspiration to other genres. They are found in a wide range of disciplines in the fine arts, a romance is heavily loaded with boats and including shipwrecks with Turner and Monet impressionism when talking about his "thing" made in Le Havre "in the Sun mist and, in the foreground, a few ship masts pointing. "More recently, photography and sea vessels into its own when photographers like Philip Plisson were appointed painters of the Navy in France.
The stories of exploration, naval battles or piracy are also the source of a rich literature, dating back to Homer and the Odyssey. The genres are numerous:
* Travel books as The Jean Jacques de Léry or Trip Around the World Bougainville
* Adventure novels like Treasure Island, Robert Louis Stevenson, Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea, The Children of Captain Grant of Jules Verne, Captains courageous Rudyard Kipling, the series Horatio Hornblower and the African Queen of CS Forester, Cyclone in Jamaica, Richard Hughes, or the adventures of Captain Jack Aubrey by Patrick O'Brian
* More poetic stories like Moby Dick of Herman Melville; The Old Man and the Sea, Ernest Hemingway; Typhoon, The Negro of Narcisse, Joseph Conrad
* Fables and fairy tales such as the fisherman Conte and passenger of Beaumont.
More recently, comics such as HMS [23] or [24] Tramp resume these topics already covered in the Passenger wind François Bourgeon, without forgetting Tintin and The Secret of the Unicorn Hergé. Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea One of the first editions of Hetzel. Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea One of the first editions of Hetzel.
Some songs sailors have come to be known, as Santiano Hugues Aufray who sings his famous "three-masted, end like a bird" or nostalgic Mother p'tits the boats that go on the water from our childhood; Other vessels topics have inspired singers like France during its disarmament inspire Michel Sardou. The opera is inspired by the most legendary stories, such as The Flying Dutchman Wagner. Finally, the film has extensively used the stories of large vessels such as Mutiny on the Bounty or Titanic, or boats imagined such as Black Pearl inspired by Marie-Celeste in the film Pirates of the Caribbean.
[edit] Historical ships
Some boats imaginary marked the literature: they were already in the religious and mythological stories like Noah's Ark in the Bible or Argo in Greek mythology, they have continued to work with our imagination flying Dutchman in the stories of pirates , the Pequod in the novel Moby Dick, Vingilótë in the work of Tolkien, or the Nautilus in Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea by Jules Verne.
Other boats took an historic significance: the Bounty is known for his mutiny, the Grand St. Anthony for bringing the plague in Marseille, the Greenpeace Rainbow Warrior for its sabotage, Le Renard for the exploits of his master, Robert Surcouf . Many liners have marked maritime history because of their size or their elegance, such as the Normandie, Norway (ex-France), the Queen Mary and Queen Elizabeth 2. Finally, some sailboats have marked the history of the race by their performance (such Dorade or Poulain), or by their aesthetic (as Endeavour, one of Class J), or both (as the series of Pen Duick Eric Tabarly) .
[edit] Maritime law
Maritime law or Admiralty law is the branch of law which governs maritime questions and offenses. It is a body of private international law governing the relationships between private entities which operate vessels on the oceans.
Law of the Sea is a body of public international law dealing with navigational rights, mineral rights, jurisdiction over coastal waters and international law governing relationships between nations.
[edit] International conventions
Prior to the mid-1970s, most international conventions concerning maritime trade and commerce originated in a private organization of maritime lawyers known as the Comite Maritime International (International Maritime Committee or CMI). Founded in 1897, the CMI was responsible for the drafting of numerous international conventions including the Hague Rules (International Convention on Bills of Lading), the Visby Amendments (amending the Hague Rules), the Salvage Convention and many others. While the CMI continues to function in an advisory capacity, many of its functions have been taken over by the International Maritime Organization, which was established by the United Nations in 1958 but did not become truly effective until about 1974.
The IMO has prepared numerous international conventions concerning maritime safety including the Safety of Life at Sea Convention (SOLAS), the Standards for Training, Certification, and Watchkeeping (STCW), the Collision Regulations (COLREGS), Maritime Pollution Regulations (MARPOL), International Aeronautical and Maritime Search and Rescue Convention (IAMSAR) and others. The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) defined a treaty regarding protection of the marine environment and various maritime boundaries.
[edit] Port state
Port State refers to that authority under which a country exercises regulatory control over the commercial vessel which is registered under another country’s flag. This authority only exists while those vessels are operating within that country’s territorial waters.
[edit] Flag state
Flag State refers to the authority under which a country exercises regulatory control over the commercial vessel which is registered under its flag. This involves the inspection, certification, and issuance of safety and pollution prevention documents.
The term comes from the flag that ships fly to show their country of registration. Under conventions of international law, the country of registration determines the source of law to be applied in admiralty cases, regardless of which court has personal jurisdiction over the parties.[5]
As of 2000, half the world's tonnage of merchant ships were registered under flags of convenience.[6] Some reasons for this include the avoidance of heavy taxes,[7] the ability to hire crews from lower-wage countries,[7] avoidance of environmental regulations,[8] and an overall reduction in the cost of transportation.[7]
A specific example of the type of advantage flying a flag of convenience offers is bypassing the 50% duty the United States government charges on repairs performed on American-flagged ships in foreign ports.[7] The accumulated advantages can be significant, for example in 1999, 28 of Sea-Land's fleet of 63 ships were foreign flagged, saving the company up to 3.5 million dollars per ship per year.[7]
On the other hand, some flag of convenience ships are characterized by "poor conditions, inadequately trained crews, and frequent collisions."[8] An illustrative example was the Prestige oil spill in 2002 off the Spanish Northwest coast. The International Transport Workers' Federation points out that FOC vessels frequently fail to pay their crews,[7] have poor safety records,[7] and engage in practices such as abandoning crewmen in distant ports.[7].
