Hard disk drive

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Hard Disk Drive

A hard disk drive with the metal cover removed.
Date Invented: September 13, 1956
Invented By: An IBM team led by Rey Johnson
Connects to:
Market Segments:

A hard disk drive (HDD), commonly referred to as a hard drive, hard disk, or fixed disk drive,[1] is a non-volatile storage device which stores digitally encoded data on rapidly rotating platters with magnetic surfaces. Strictly speaking, "drive" refers to a device distinct from its medium, such as a tape drive and its tape, or a floppy disk drive and its floppy disk. Early HDDs had removable media; however, an HDD today is typically a sealed unit (except for a filtered vent hole to equalize air pressure) with fixed media.[2]

A HDD is a rigid-disk drive, although it is probably never referred to as such. By way of comparison, a so-called "floppy" drive (more formally, a diskette drive) has a disc that is flexible. Originally, the term "hard" was temporary slang, substituting "hard" for "rigid", before these drives had an established and universally-agreed-upon name. Some time ago, IBM's internal company term for an HDD was "file".

HDDs (introduced in 1956 as data storage for an IBM accounting computer[3]) were originally developed for use with general purpose computers; see History of hard disk drives.

In the 21st century, applications for HDDs have expanded to include digital video recorders, digital audio players, personal digital assistants, digital cameras and video game consoles. In 2005 the first mobile phones to include HDDs were introduced by Samsung and Nokia.[4] The need for large-scale, reliable storage, independent of a particular device, led to the introduction of configurations such as RAID arrays, network attached storage (NAS) systems and storage area network (SAN) systems that provide efficient and reliable access to large volumes of data. Note that although not immediately recognizable as a computer, all the aforementioned applications are actually embedded computing devices of some sort.

Contents

[edit] Technology

HDDs record data by magnetizing ferromagnetic material directionally, to represent either a 0 or a 1 binary digit. They read the data back by detecting the magnetization of the material. A typical HDD design consists of a spindle which holds one or more flat circular disks called platters, onto which the data are recorded. The platters are made from a non-magnetic material, usually aluminum alloy or glass, and are coated with a thin layer of magnetic material. Older disks used iron(III) oxide as the magnetic material, but current disks use a cobalt-based alloy.

A cross section of the magnetic surface in action. In this case the binary data is encoded using frequency modulation.
A cross section of the magnetic surface in action. In this case the binary data is encoded using frequency modulation.

The platters are spun at very high speeds (details follow). Information is written to a platter as it rotates past devices called read-and-write heads that operate very close (tens of nanometers in new drives) over the magnetic surface. The read-and-write head is used to detect and modify the magnetization of the material immediately under it. There is one head for each magnetic platter surface on the spindle, mounted on a common arm. An actuator arm (or access arm) moves the heads on an arc (roughly radially) across the platters as they spin, allowing each head to access almost the entire surface of the platter as it spins. The arm is moved using a voice coil actuator or (in older designs) a stepper motor. Stepper motors were outside the head-disk chamber, and preceded voice-coil drives. The latter, for a while, had a structure similar to that of a loudspeaker; the coil and heads moved in a straight line, along a radius of the platters. The present-day structure differs in several respects from that of the earlier voice-coil drives, but the same interaction between the coil and magnetic field still applies, and the term is still used.

Older drives read the data on the platter by sensing the rate of change of the magnetism in the head; these heads had small coils, and worked (in principle) much like magnetic-tape playback heads, although not in contact with the recording surface. As data density increased, read heads using magnetoresistance (MR) came into use; the electrical resistance of the head changed according to the strength of the magnetism from the platter. Later development made use of spintronics; in these heads, the magnetoresistive effect was much greater that in earlier types, and was dubbed "giant" magnetoresistance (GMR). This refers to the degree of effect, not the physical size, of the head — the heads themselves are extremely tiny, and are too small to be seen without a microscope. GMR read heads are now commonplace.[citation needed]

HD heads are kept from contacting the platter surface by the air that is extremely close to the platter; that air moves at, or close to, the platter speed.[citation needed] The record and playback head are mounted on a block called a slider, and the surface next to the platter is shaped to keep it just barely out of contact. It's a type of air bearing.

The magnetic surface of each platter is conceptually divided into many small sub-micrometre-sized magnetic regions, each of which is used to encode a single binary unit of information. In today's HDDs, each of these magnetic regions is composed of a few hundred magnetic grains. Each magnetic region forms a magnetic dipole which generates a highly localized magnetic field nearby. The write head magnetizes a region by generating a strong local magnetic field. Early HDDs used an electromagnet both to generate this field and to read the data by using electromagnetic induction. Later versions of inductive heads included metal in Gap (MIG) heads and thin film heads. In today's heads, the read and write elements are separate, but in close proximity, on the head portion of an actuator arm. The read element is typically magneto-resistive while the write element is typically thin-film inductive.[5]

In modern drives, the small size of the magnetic regions creates the danger that their magnetic state might be lost because of thermal effects. To counter this, the platters are coated with two parallel magnetic layers, separated by a 3-atom-thick layer of the non-magnetic element ruthenium, and the two layers are magnetized in opposite orientation, thus reinforcing each other.[6] Another technology used to overcome thermal effects to allow greater recording densities is perpendicular recording, first shipped in 2005[7], as of 2007 the technology was used in many HDDs[8][9][10].

See File System for how operating systems access data on HDDs and other storage devices.

[edit] Architecture

A hard disk drive with the platters and spindle motor hub removed showing the copper colored motor coils surrounding a bearing at the center of the spindle motor.
A hard disk drive with the platters and spindle motor hub removed showing the copper colored motor coils surrounding a bearing at the center of the spindle motor.

The motor has an external rotor; the stator windings are copper-colored. The spindle bearing is in the center. To the left of center is the actuator with a read-write head under the tip of its very end (near center); the orange stripe along the side of the arm, a thin printed-circuit cable, connects the read-write head to the hub of the actuator. The flexible, somewhat 'U'-shaped, ribbon cable barely visible below and to the left of the actuator arm is the flexible section, one end on the hub, that continues the connection from the head to the controller board on the opposite side.

The head support arm is very light, but also rigid; in modern drives, acceleration at the head reaches 250 gs.

The silver-colored structure at the upper left is the top plate of the permanent-magnet and moving coil "motor" that swings the heads to the desired position. Beneath this plate is the moving coil, attached to the actuator hub, and beneath that is a thin neodymium-iron-boron (NIB) high-flux magnet. That magnet is mounted on the bottom plate of the "motor".

The coil, itself, is shaped rather like an arrowhead, and made of doubly-coated copper magnet wire. The inner layer is insulation, and the outer is thermoplastic, which bonds the coil together after it's wound on a form, making it self-supporting. Much of the coil, sides of the arrowhead, which points to the actuator bearing center, interacts with the magnetic field to develop a tangential force to rotate the actuator. Considering that current flows (at a given time) radially outward along one side of the arrowhead, and radially inward on the other, the surface of the magnet is half N pole, half S pole; the dividing line is midway, and radial.

[edit] Capacity and access speed

PC hard disk drive capacity (in GB). The vertical axis is logarithmic, so the fit line corresponds to exponential growth.
PC hard disk drive capacity (in GB). The vertical axis is logarithmic, so the fit line corresponds to exponential growth.

Using rigid disks and sealing the unit allows much tighter tolerances than in a floppy disk drive. Consequently, hard disk drives can store much more data than floppy disk drives and can access and transmit it faster. As of January 2008:

  • A typical desktop HDD, might store between 120 and 300 GB of data (based on US market data[11]), rotate at 7,200 revolutions per minute (RPM) and have a media transfer rate of 1 Gbit/s or higher. (1 GB = 109 B; 1 Gbit/s = 109 bit/s)
  • The highest capacity HDDs are 1 TB.
  • The fastest “enterprise” HDDs spin at 10,000 or 15,000 rpm, and can achieve sequential media transfer speeds above 1.6 Gbit/s.[12] and a sustained transfer rate up to 125MBytes/second.[12] Drives running at 10,000 or 15,000 rpm use smaller platters because of air drag and therefore generally have lower capacity than the highest capacity desktop drives.
  • Mobile, i.e., laptop HDDs, which are physically smaller than their desktop and enterprise counterparts, tend to be slower and have less capacity. A typical mobile HDD spins at 5,400 rpm, with 7,200 rpm models available for a slight price premium. Because of the smaller disks, mobile HDDs generally have lower capacity than the highest capacity desktop drives.

The exponential increases in disk space and data access speeds of HDDs have enabled the commercial viability of consumer products that require large storage capacities, such as digital video recorders and digital audio players.[13] In addition, the availability of vast amounts of cheap storage has made viable a variety of web-based services with extraordinary capacity requirements, such as free-of-charge web search, web archiving and video sharing (Google, Yahoo!, YouTube, etc.).

The main way to decrease access time is to increase rotational speed, while the main way to increase throughput and storage capacity is to increase areal density. A vice president of Seagate Technology projects a future growth in disk density of 40% per year.[14] Access times have not kept up with throughput increases, which themselves have not kept up with growth in storage capacity.

The first 3.5" HDD marketed as able to store 1 TB was the Hitachi Deskstar 7K1000. It contains five platters at approximately 200 GB each, providing 935.5 GiB of usable space.[15] Hitachi has since been joined by Samsung (Samsung SpinPoint F1, which has 3 × 334 GB platters), Seagate and Western Digital in the 1 TB drive market.[16][17]

Form factor Width Largest capacity Platters (Max)
5.25" FH 146 mm 47 GB[18] (1998) 14
5.25" HH 146 mm 19.3 GB[19] (1998) 4[20]
3.5" 102 mm 1 TB[15] (2007) 5
2.5" 69.9 mm 500 GB[21] (2008) 3
1.8" (PCMCIA) 54 mm 160 GB[22] (2007)
1.8" (ATA-7 LIF) 53.8 mm
1.3" 36.4 mm 40 GB[23] (2008) 1

[edit] Capacity measurements

 It has been suggested that Disk Overhead be merged into this article or section. (Discuss)
A disassembled and labeled 1997 hard drive.
A disassembled and labeled 1997 hard drive.

Capacity of a hard disk drive is usually quoted in gigabytes and terabytes. Older HDDs quoted their smaller capacities in megabytes, the first drives for PCs being just 5 or 10 MB.

The capacity of an HDD can be calculated by multiplying the number of cylinders by the number of heads by the number of sectors by the number of bytes/sector (most commonly 512). Drives with ATA interface bigger and more than eight gigabytes behave as if they were structured into 16383 cylinders, 16 heads, and 63 sectors, for compatibility with older operating systems. Unlike in the 1980s, the cylinder, head, sector (C/H/S) counts reported to the CPU by a modern ATA drive are no longer actual physical parameters since the reported numbers are constrained by historic operating-system interfaces and with zone bit recording the actual number of sectors varies by zone. Disks with SCSI interface address each sector with a unique integer number; the operating system remains ignorant of their head or cylinder count.

The old C/H/S scheme has been replaced by logical block addressing. In some cases, to try to "force-fit" the C/H/S scheme to large-capacity drives, the number of heads was given as 64, although no drive has anywhere near 32 platters.

Hard disk drive manufacturers specify disk capacity using the SI prefixes mega-, giga- and tera-, and their abbreviations M, G and T. Byte is typically abbreviated B.

Most operating-system tools report capacity using the same abbreviations but actually use binary prefixes. For instance, the prefix mega-, which normally means 106 (1,000,000), in the context of data storage can mean 220 (1,048,576), which is nearly 5% more. Similar usage has been applied to prefixes of greater magnitude. This results in a discrepancy between the disk manufacturer's stated capacity and the apparent capacity of the drive when examined through most operating-system tools. The difference becomes even more noticeable (7%) for a gigabyte. For example, Microsoft Windows reports disk capacity both in decimal-based units to 12 or more significant digits and with binary-based units to three significant digits. Thus a disk specified by a disk manufacturer as a 30 GB disk might have its capacity reported by Windows 2000 both as "30,065,098,568 bytes" and "28.0 GB". The disk manufacturer used the SI definition of "giga", 109 to arrive at 30 GB; however, because the utilities provided by Windows, Mac and some Linux distributions define a gigabyte as 1,073,741,824 bytes (230 bytes, often referred to as a gibibyte, or GiB), the operating system reports capacity of the disk drive as (only) 28.0 GB.

[edit] Form factors

5¼" full height 110 MB HDD,2½" 8.5 mm 6495 MB HDD,US/UK pennies for comparison.
5¼" full height 110 MB HDD,
2½" 8.5 mm 6495 MB HDD,
US/UK pennies for comparison.
Six hard drives with 8", 5.25", 3.5", 2.5", 1.8", and 1" disks, partially disassembled to show platters and read-write heads, with a ruler showing inches.
Six hard drives with 8", 5.25", 3.5", 2.5", 1.8", and 1" disks, partially disassembled to show platters and read-write heads, with a ruler showing inches.

The earliest “form factor” hard disk drives inherited their dimensions from floppy-disk drives (FDDs), so that either could be mounted in chassis slots, and thus the HDD form factors became colloquially named after the corresponding FDD types. "Form factor" compatibility continued after the 3½ in size even though floppy disk drives with new smaller dimensions ceased to be offered.

  • 8 inch: (9.5 in x 4.624 in x 14.25 in = 241.3 mm x 117.5 mm x 362 mm)
    In 1979, Shugart Associates' SA1000 was the first form factor compatible HDD, having the same dimensions and a compatible interface to the 8" FDD. Both "full height" and "half height" (2.313 in) versions were available.
  • 5.25 inch: (5.75 in x 1.63 in x 8 in = 146.1 mm x 41.4 mm x 203 mm)
    This smaller form factor, first used in an HDD by Seagate in 1980, was the same size as full height 5¼-inch diameter FDD, i.e., 3.25 inches high. This is twice as high as commonly used today; i.e., 1.63 in = 41.4 mm (“half height”). Most desktop models of drives for optical 120 mm disks (DVD, CD) use the half height 5¼" dimension, but it fell out of fashion for HDDs. The Quantum Bigfoot HDD was the last to use it in the late 1990s, with “low-profile” (~25 mm) and “ultra-low-profile” (~20 mm) high versions.
  • 3.5 inch (4 in x 1 in x 5.75 in = 101.6 mm x 25.4 mm x 146 mm)
    This smaller form factor, first used in an HDD by Rodime in 1984, was the same size as the "half height" 3½ FDD, i.e., 1.63 inches high. Today has been largely superseded by 1-inch high “slimline” or “low-profile” versions of this form factor which is used by most desktop HDDs.
  • 2.5 inch: (2.75 in x 0.374 in x 3.945 in = 69.85 mm x 9.5–15mm mm x 100 mm)
    This smaller form factor was introduced by PrairieTek in 1988; there is no corresponding FDD. It is widely used today for hard-disk drives in mobile devices (laptops, music players, etc.) and as of 2008 replacing 3.5 inch enterprise-class drives. Today, the dominant height of this form factor is 9.5 mm for laptop drives, but high capacity drives have a height of 12.5 mm. Enterprise-class drives can have a height up to 15 mm.[24]
  • 1.8 inch: (54 mm × 8 mm × 71 mm)
    This form factor, originally introduced by Integral Peripherals in 1993, has evolved into the ATA-7 LIF with dimensions as stated. It is increasingly used in digital audio players and subnotebooks. An original variant exists for 2–5 GB sized HDDs that fit directly into a PC card expansion slot. These became popular for their use in iPods and other HDD based MP3 players.
  • 1 inch: (42.8 mm × 5 mm × 36.4 mm)
    This form factor was introduced in 1999 as IBM's Microdrive to fit inside a CF Type II slot. Samsung calls the same form factor "1.3 inch" drive in its product literature.[25]
  • 0.85 inch: (24 mm × 5 mm × 32 mm)
    Toshiba announced this form factor in January 2004[26] for use in mobile phones and similar applications, including SD/MMC slot compatible HDDs optimized for video storage on 4G handsets. Toshiba currently sells a 4 GB (MK4001MTD) and 8 GB (MK8003MTD) version[3] and holds the Guinness World Record for the smallest harddisk drive.[27]

Major manufacturers discontinued the development of new products for the 1-inch (=1.3-inch) and 0.85-inch form factors in 2007, due to falling prices of flash memory[28], although Samsung introduced in 2008 with the SpinPoint A1 another 1.3-inch drive.

The inch-based nickname of all these form factors usually do not indicate any actual product dimension (which are specified in millimeters for more recent form factors), but just roughly indicate a size relative to disk diameters, in the interest of historic continuity.

[edit] Other characteristics

Transfer rate As of 2008, the data transfer rate at the inner zone ranges from 44.2 MB/s to 74.5 MB/s, while the transfer rate at the outer zone ranges from 74.0 MB/s to 111.4 MB/s.[citation needed] In contrast, the first PC drives could manage only around 40 KiB/s.

Random access time (seek time) currently ranges from just under 5 ms for high-end server drives, to 15 ms for miniature drives, with the most common desktop type typically being around 9 ms.[citation needed] There has not been any significant improvement in this speed for some years. Some early PC drives used a worm-gear to move the heads, and as a result had access times as slow as 80 - 120 ms, but this was quickly improved by voice-coil type actuation in the late 1980s, seeing access times reduce to around 20 ms.

Power consumption has become increasingly important, not just in mobile devices such as laptops but also in server and desktop markets. Increasing data center machine density has led to problems delivering sufficient power to devices, and getting rid of the waste heat subsequently produced, as well as environmental and electrical cost concerns (see green computing). Similar issues exist for large companies with thousands of desktop PCs. Smaller form factor drives often use less power than larger drives. One interesting development in this area is actively controlling the seek speed so that the head arrives at its destination only just in time to read the sector, rather than arriving as quickly as possible and then having to wait for the sector to come around (i.e. the rotational latency).

Audible noise (measured in dBA) is significant for certain applications, such as PVRs digital audio recording and quiet computers. Low noise disks typically use fluid bearings, slower rotational speeds (usually 5,400rpm) and reduce the seek speed under load (AAM) to reduce audible clicks and crunching sounds. Drives in smaller form factors (e.g. 2.5 inch) are often quieter than larger drives.

Shock resistance is especially important for mobile devices. Some laptops now include a motion sensor that parks the disk heads if the machine is dropped, hopefully before impact, to offer the greatest possible chance of survival in such an event.

[edit] Access and interfaces

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Hard disk drives are accessed over one of a number of bus types, including parallel ATA (PATA, also called IDE or EIDE), Serial ATA (SATA), SCSI, Serial Attached SCSI (SAS), and Fibre Channel. Bridge circuitry is sometimes used to connect hard disk drives to buses that they cannot communicate with natively, such as IEEE 1394 and USB.

Back in the days of the ST-506 interface, the data encoding scheme was also important. The first ST-506 disks used Modified Frequency Modulation (MFM) encoding, and transferred data at a rate of 5 megabits per second. Later on, controllers using 2,7 RLL (or just "RLL") encoding increased the transfer rate by 50%, to 7.5 megabits per second; this also increased disk capacity by fifty percent.

Many ST-506 interface disk drives were only specified by the manufacturer to run at the lower MFM data rate, while other models (usually more expensive versions of the same basic disk drive) were specified to run at the higher RLL data rate. In some cases, a disk drive had sufficient margin to allow the MFM specified model to run at the faster RLL data rate; however, this was often unreliable and was not recommended. (An RLL-certified disk drive could run on a MFM controller, but with 1/3 less data capacity and speed.)

Enhanced Small Disk Interface (ESDI) also supported multiple data rates (ESDI disks always used 2,7 RLL, but at 10, 15 or 20 megabits per second), but this was usually negotiated automatically by the disk drive and controller; most of the time, however, 15 or 20 megabit ESDI disk drives weren't downward compatible (i.e. a 15 or 20 megabit disk drive wouldn't run on a 10 megabit controller). ESDI disk drives typically also had jumpers to set the number of sectors per track and (in some cases) sector size.

SCSI originally had just one speed, 5 MHz (for a maximum data rate of five megabytes per second), but later this was increased dramatically. The SCSI bus speed had no bearing on the disk's internal speed because of buffering between the SCSI bus and the disk drive's internal data bus; however, many early disk drives had very small buffers, and thus had to be reformatted to a different interleave (just like ST-506 disks) when used on slow computers, such as early IBM PC compatibles and early Apple Macintoshes.

ATA disks have typically had no problems with interleave or data rate, due to their controller design, but many early models were incompatible with each other and couldn't run in a master/slave setup (two disks on the same cable). This was mostly remedied by the mid-1990s, when ATA's specification was standardised and the details began to be cleaned up, but still causes problems occasionally (especially with CD-ROM and DVD-ROM disks, and when mixing Ultra DMA and non-UDMA devices).

Serial ATA does away with master/slave setups entirely, placing each disk on its own channel (with its own set of I/O ports) instead.

FireWire/IEEE 1394 and USB(1.0/2.0) HDDs are external units containing generally ATA or SCSI disks with ports on the back allowing very simple and effective expansion and mobility. Most FireWire/IEEE 1394 models are able to daisy-chain in order to continue adding peripherals without requiring additional ports on the computer itself.

[edit] Disk interface families used in personal computers

Notable families of disk interfaces include:

  • Historical bit serial interfaces — connected to a hard disk drive controller with three cables, one for data, one for control and one for power. The HDD controller provided significant functions such as serial to parallel conversion, data separation and track formatting, and required matching to the drive in order to assure reliability.
    • ST506 used MFM (Modified Frequency Modulation) for the data encoding method.
    • ST412 was available in either MFM or RLL (Run Length Limited) variants.
    • Enhanced Small Disk Interface (ESDI) was an interface developed by Maxtor to allow faster communication between the PC and the disk than MFM or RLL.
  • Modern bit serial interfaces — connect to a host bus adapter (today typically integrated into the "south bridge") with two cables, one for data/control and one for power.
    • Fibre Channel (FC), is a successor to parallel SCSI interface on enterprise market. It is a serial protocol. In disk drives usually the Fibre Channel Arbitrated Loop (FC-AL) connection topology is used. FC has much broader usage than mere disk interfaces, it is the cornerstone of storage area networks (SANs). Recently other protocols for this field, like iSCSI and ATA over Ethernet have been developed as well. Confusingly, drives usually use copper twisted-pair cables for Fibre Channel, not fibre optics. The latter are traditionally reserved for larger devices, such as servers or disk array controllers.
    • Serial ATA (SATA). The SATA data cable has one data pair for differential transmission of data to the device, and one pair for differential receiving from the device, just like EIA-422. That requires that data be transmitted serially. The same differential signaling system is used in RS485, LocalTalk, USB, Firewire, and differential SCSI.
    • Serial Attached SCSI (SAS). The SAS is a new generation serial communication protocol for devices designed to allow for much higher speed data transfers and is compatible with SATA. SAS uses serial communication instead of the parallel method found in traditional SCSI devices but still uses SCSI commands.
  • Word serial interfaces — connect to a host bus adapter (today typically integrated into the "south bridge") with two cables, one for data/control and one for power. The earliest versions of these interfaces typically had a 16 bit parallel data transfer to/from the drive and there are 8 and 32 bit variants. Modern versions have serial data transfer. The word nature of data transfer makes the design of a host bus adapter significantly simpler than that of the precursor HDD controller.
    • Integrated Drive Electronics (IDE), later renamed to ATA, and then later to PATA ("parallel ATA", to distinguish it from the new Serial ATA). The original name reflected the innovative integration of HDD controller with HDD itself, which was not found in earlier disks. Moving the HDD controller from the interface card to the disk drive helped to standardize interfaces, including reducing the cost and complexity. The 40 pin IDE/ATA connection of PATA transfers 16 bits of data at a time on the data cable. The data cable was originally 40 conductor, but later higher speed requirements for data transfer to and from the hard drive led to an "ultra DMA" mode, known as UDMA, which required an 80 conductor variant of the same cable; the other conductors provided the grounding necessary for enhanced high-speed signal quality. The interface for 80 pin only has 39 pins, the missing pin acting as a key to prevent incorrect insertion of the connector to an incompatible socket, a common cause of disk and controller damage.
    • EIDE was an unofficial update (by Western Digital) to the original IDE standard, with the key improvement being the use of direct memory access (DMA) to transfer data between the disk and the computer without the involvement of the CPU, an improvement later adopted by the official ATA standards. By directly transferring data between memory and disk, DMA does not require the CPU/program/operating system to leave other tasks idle while the data transfer occurs.
    • Small Computer System Interface (SCSI), originally named SASI for Shugart Associates System Interface, was an early competitor of ESDI. SCSI disks were standard on servers, workstations, and Apple Macintosh computers through the mid-90s, by which time most models had been transitioned to IDE (and later, SATA) family disks. Only in 2005 did the capacity of SCSI disks fall behind IDE disk technology, though the highest-performance disks are still available in SCSI and Fibre Channel only. The length limitations of the data cable allows for external SCSI devices. Originally SCSI data cables used single ended data transmission, but server class SCSI could use differential transmission, either low voltage differential (LVD) or high voltage differential (HVD).
Acronym or abbreviation Meaning Description
SASI Shugart Associates System Interface Historical predecessor to SCSI.
SCSI Small Computer System Interface Bus oriented that handles concurrent operations.
SAS Serial Attached SCSI Improvement of SCSI, uses serial communication instead of parallel.
ST-506 Historical Seagate interface.
ST-412 Historical Seagate interface (minor improvement over ST-506).
ESDI Enhanced Small Disk Interface Historical; backwards compatible with ST-412/506, but faster and more integrated.
ATA Advanced Technology Attachment Successor to ST-412/506/ESDI by integrating the disk controller completely onto the device. Incapable of concurrent operations.
SATA Serial ATA Modification of ATA, uses serial communication instead of parallel.

[edit] Integrity

An IBM HDD head resting on a disk platter. Since the drive is not in operation, the head is simply pressed against the disk by the suspension.
An IBM HDD head resting on a disk platter. Since the drive is not in operation, the head is simply pressed against the disk by the suspension.
Close-up of a hard disk head resting on a disk platter, and its suspension. A reflection of the head and suspension are visible beneath on the mirror-like disk.
Close-up of a hard disk head resting on a disk platter, and its suspension. A reflection of the head and suspension are visible beneath on the mirror-like disk.

Due to the extremely close spacing between the heads and the disk surface, any contamination of the read-write heads or platters can lead to a head crash — a failure of the disk in which the head scrapes across the platter surface, often grinding away the thin magnetic film and causing data loss. Head crashes can be caused by electronic failure, a sudden power failure, physical shock, wear and tear, corrosion, or poorly manufactured platters and heads.

The HDD's spindle system relies on air pressure inside the enclosure to support the heads at their proper flying height while the disk rotates. An HDD requires a certain range of air pressures in order to operate properly. The connection to the external environment and pressure occurs through a small hole in the enclosure (about 0.5 mm in diameter), usually with a carbon filter on the inside (the breather filter, see below). If the air pressure is too low, then there is not enough lift for the flying head, so the head gets too close to the disk, and there is a risk of head crashes and data loss. Specially manufactured sealed and pressurized disks are needed for reliable high-altitude operation, above about 3,000 m (10,000 feet). Note that modern commercial aircraft have a pressurized cabin, whose pressure altitude does not normally exceed 2,600 m(8,500 feet) - thus, ordinary hard drives can safely be used in flight. Modern disks include temperature sensors and adjust their operation to the operating environment. Breather holes can be seen on all disks — they usually have a sticker next to them, warning the user not to cover the holes. The air inside the operating disk is constantly moving too, being swept in motion by friction with the spinning platters. This air passes through an internal recirculation (or "recirc") filter to remove any leftover contaminants from manufacture, any particles or chemicals that may have somehow entered the enclosure, and any particles or outgassing generated internally in normal operation. Very high humidity for extended periods can corrode the heads and platters.

For giant magnetoresistive (GMR) heads in particular, a minor head crash from contamination (that does not remove the magnetic surface of the disk) still results in the head temporarily overheating, due to friction with the disk surface, and can render the data unreadable for a short period until the head temperature stabilizes (so called "thermal asperity," a problem which can partially be dealt with by proper electronic filtering of the read signal).

The hard disk's electronics control the movement of the actuator and the rotation of the disk, and perform reads and writes on demand from the disk controller. Modern disk firmware is capable of scheduling reads and writes efficiently on the platter surfaces and remapping sectors of the media which have failed.

[edit] Landing zones and load/unload technology

Microphotograph of a hard disk head. The size of the front face (which is the "trailing face" of the slider) is about 0.3 mm × 1.0 mm. The (not visible) bottom face of the slider is about 1.0 mm × 1.25 mm (so called "nano" size) and faces the platter. One functional part of the head is the round, orange structure in the middle - the lithographically defined copper coil of the write transducer. Also note the electric connections by wires bonded to gold-plated pads.
Microphotograph of a hard disk head. The size of the front face (which is the "trailing face" of the slider) is about 0.3 mm × 1.0 mm. The (not visible) bottom face of the slider is about 1.0 mm × 1.25 mm (so called "nano" size) and faces the platter. One functional part of the head is the round, orange structure in the middle - the lithographically defined copper coil of the write transducer. Also note the electric connections by wires bonded to gold-plated pads.

Most HDDs prevent power interruptions from shutting the drive down with its heads landing in the data zone by either moving the heads to a landing zone or unloading (i.e., load/unload) the heads.

A landing zone is an area of the platter usually near its inner diameter (ID), where no data is stored. This area is called the Contact Start/Stop (CSS) zone. Disks are designed such that either a spring or, more recently, rotational inertia in the platters is used to park the heads in the case of unexpected power loss. In this case, the spindle motor temporarily acts as a generator, providing power to the actuator.

Spring tension from the head mounting constantly pushes the heads towards the platter. While the disk is spinning, the heads are supported by an air bearing and experience no physical contact or wear. In CSS drives the sliders carrying the head sensors (often also just called heads) are designed to survive a number of landings and takeoffs from the media surface, though wear and tear on these microscopic components eventually takes its toll. Most manufacturers design the sliders to survive 50,000 contact cycles before the chance of damage on startup rises above 50%. However, the decay rate is not linear: when a disk is younger and has had fewer start-stop cycles, it has a better chance of surviving the next startup than an older, higher-mileage disk (as the head literally drags along the disk's surface until the air bearing is established). For example, the Seagate Barracuda 7200.10 series of desktop hard disks are rated to 50,000 start-stop cycles, in other words no failures attributed to the head-platter interface were seen before at least 50,000 start-stop cycles during testing.[29]

Around 1995 IBM pioneered a technology where a landing zone on the disk is made by a precision laser process (Laser Zone Texture = LZT) producing an array of smooth nanometer-scale "bumps" in a landing zone, thus vastly improving stiction and wear performance. This technology is still largely in use today (2007), predominantly in desktop and enterprise (3.5 inch) drives. In general, CSS technology can be prone to increased stiction (the tendency for the heads to stick to the platter surface), e.g. as a consequence of increased humidity. Excessive stiction can cause physical damage to the platter and slider or spindle motor.

Load/Unload technology relies on the heads being lifted off the platters into a safe location, thus eliminating the risks of wear and stiction altogether. The first HDD RAMAC and most early disk drives used complex mechanisms to load and unload the heads. Modern HDDs use ramp loading, first introduced by Memorex in 1967[30], to load/unload onto plastic "ramps" near the outer disk edge.

All HDDs today still use one of these two technologies. Each has a list of advantages and drawbacks in terms of loss of storage area on the disk, relative difficulty of mechanical tolerance control, cost of implementation, etc.

Addressing shock robustness, IBM also created a technology for their ThinkPad line of laptop computers called the Active Protection System. When a sudden, sharp movement is detected by the built-in accelerometer in the Thinkpad, internal hard disk heads automatically unload themselves to reduce the risk of any potential data loss or scratch defects. Apple later also utilized this technology in their PowerBook, iBook, MacBook Pro, and MacBook line, known as the Sudden Motion Sensor. Toshiba has released similar technology in their laptops.[31]

[edit] Disk failures and their metrics

Wikibooks

Most major hard disk and motherboard vendors now support self-monitoring, analysis and reporting technology (S.M.A.R.T.), which attempts to alert users to impending failures.

However, not all failures are predictable. Normal use eventually can lead to a breakdown in the inherently fragile device, which makes it essential for the user to periodically back up the data onto a separate storage device. Failure to do so will lead to the loss of data. While it may sometimes be possible to recover lost information, it is normally an extremely costly procedure, and it is not possible to guarantee success. A 2007 study published by Google suggested very little correlation between failure rates and either high temperature or activity level.[32] While several S.M.A.R.T. parameters have an impact on failure probability, a large fraction of failed drives do not produce predictive S.M.A.R.T. parameters.[32] S.M.A.R.T. parameters alone may not be useful for predicting individual drive failures.[32]

A common misconception is that a colder hard drive will last longer than a hotter hard drive. The Google study showed the reverse -- "lower temperatures are associated with higher failure rates". Hard drives with S.M.A.R.T.-reported average temperatures below 27 C had failure rates worse than hard drives with the highest reported average temperature of 50 C, failure rates at least twice as high as the optimum S.M.A.R.T.-reported temperature range of 36 C to 47 C.[32]

SCSI, SAS and FC drives are typically more expensive and are traditionally used in servers and disk arrays, whereas inexpensive ATA and SATA drives evolved in the home computer market and were perceived to be less reliable. This distinction is now becoming blurred.

The mean time between failures (MTBF) of SATA drives is usually about 600,000 hours (some drives such as Western Digital Raptor have rated 1.2 million hours MTBF), while SCSI drives are rated for upwards of 1.5 million hours.[citation needed] However, independent research indicates that MTBF is not a reliable estimate of a drive's longevity.[33] MTBF is conducted in laboratory environments in test chambers and is an important metric to determine the quality of a disk drive before it enters high volume production. Once the drive product is in production, the more valid[citation needed] metric is annualized failure rate (AFR). AFR is the percentage of real-world drive failures after shipping.

SAS drives are comparable to SCSI drives, with high MTBF and high[citation needed] reliability.

Enterprise SATA drives designed and produced for enterprise markets, unlike standard SATA drives, have reliability comparable to other enterprise class drives.[citation needed]

Typically enterprise drives (all enterprise drives, including SCSI, SAS, enterprise SATA and FC) experience between 0.70%-0.78% annual failure rates from the total installed drives.[citation needed]

[edit] Manufacturers

A Western Digital 3.5 inch 250 GB SATA HDD. This drive has an optional 4-pin Molex power connector typically used for the older ATA standard, and SATA typically uses its own, proprietary power connector.
A Western Digital 3.5 inch 250 GB SATA HDD. This drive has an optional 4-pin Molex power connector typically used for the older ATA standard, and SATA typically uses its own, proprietary power connector.
See also List of defunct hard disk manufacturers

The technological resources and know-how required for modern drive development and production mean that as of 2007, over 98% of the world's HDDs are manufactured by just a handful of large firms: Seagate (which now owns Maxtor), Western Digital, Samsung, and Hitachi (which owns the former disk manufacturing division of IBM). Fujitsu continues to make mobile- and server-class disks but exited the desktop-class market in 2001. Toshiba is a major manufacturer of 2.5-inch and 1.8-inch notebook disks. ExcelStor is a small HDD manufacturer.

Dozens of former HDD manufacturers have gone out of business, merged, or closed their HDD divisions; as capacities and demand for products increased, profits became hard to find, and the market underwent significant consolidation in the late 1980s and late 1990s. The first notable casualty of the business in the PC era was Computer Memories Inc. or CMI; after an incident with faulty 20 MB AT disks in 1985,[34] CMI's reputation never recovered, and they exited the HDD business in 1987. Another notable failure was MiniScribe, who went bankrupt in 1990 after it was found that they had engaged in accounting fraud and inflated sales numbers for several years. Many other smaller companies (like Kalok, Microscience, LaPine, Areal, Priam and PrairieTek) also did not survive the shakeout, and had disappeared by 1993; Micropolis was able to hold on until 1997, and JTS, a relative latecomer to the scene, lasted only a few years and was gone by 1999, after attempting to manufacture HDDs in India. Their claim to fame was creating a new 3" form factor drive for use in laptops. Quantum and Integral also invested in the 3" form factor; but eventually gave up as this form factor failed to catch on.[citation needed] Rodime was also an important manufacturer during the 1980s, but stopped making disks in the early 1990s amid the shakeout and now concentrates on technology licensing; they hold a number of patents related to 3.5-inch form factor HDDs.

This list is incomplete; you can help by expanding it.
  • 1988: Tandon Corporation sold its disk manufacturing division to Western Digital (WDC), which was then a well-known controller designer.[35]
  • 1989: Seagate Technology bought Control Data's high-end disk business, as part of CDC's exit from hardware manufacturing.
  • 1990: Maxtor buys MiniScribe out of bankruptcy, making it the core of its low-end disk division.
  • 1994: Quantum bought DEC's storage division, giving it a high-end disk range to go with its more consumer-oriented ProDrive range, as well as the DLT tape drive range.
  • 1995: Conner Peripherals, which was founded by one of Seagate Technology's co-founders along with personnel from MiniScribe, announces a merger with Seagate, which was completed in early 1996.
  • 1996: JTS merges with Atari, allowing JTS to bring its disk range into production. Atari was sold to Hasbro in 1998, while JTS itself went bankrupt in 1999.
  • 2000: Quantum sells its disk division to Maxtor to concentrate on tape drives and backup equipment.
  • 2003: Following the controversy over mass failures of its Deskstar 75GXP range, HDD pioneer IBM sold the majority of its disk division to Hitachi, who renamed it Hitachi Global Storage Technologies (HGST).
  • December 21, 2005: Seagate and Maxtor announced an agreement under which Seagate would acquire Maxtor in an all stock transaction valued at $1.9 billion. The acquisition was approved by the appropriate regulatory bodies, and closed on May 19, 2006.
  • 2006: Western Digital releases the Western Digital Raptor X.[36]
  • 2007
    • April: Hitachi releases the 1 TB Hitachi Deskstar 7K1000 (1TB = 1 trillion bytes, roughly 931.5 GiB).[37][38][39]
    • July: Western Digital (WDC) acquires Komag U.S.A, a thin-film media manufacturer, for USD 1 Billion.[40]
    • September: Hitachi releases 2.5-inch 320 GB hard disk.
  • 2008
    • January: Hitachi releases 2.5-inch 500 GB hard disk and it was demonstrated by Asus with a laptop at 1 TB storage in CES event, Las Vegas
    • April 21: Western Digital releases the new VelociRaptor hard drive.[41]

[edit] See also

[edit] Notes and References

  1. ^ Other terms used to describe hard disk drives include disk drive, disk file, DASD (Direct Access Storage Device), fixed disk, CKD disk and Winchester Disk Drive (after the IBM 3340).
  2. ^ How Hard Disks Work, howstuffworks.com
  3. ^ New Ideas, TIME Magazine, September 24, 1956
  4. ^ Finally! The Samsung SPH-V5400, world's first cellphone with a hard drive, engadget.com, 6 September 2004
  5. ^ IBM OEM MR Head | Technology | The era of giant magnetoresistive heads
  6. ^ Brian Hayes, Terabyte Territory, American Scientist, Vol 90 No 3 (May-June 2002) p. 212
  7. ^ Toshiba : Press Releases 14 December, 2004
  8. ^ Seagate Momentus 2½" HDDs per webpage Jan 2008
  9. ^ Seagate Baracuda 3½" HDDs per webpage Jan 2008
  10. ^ Western Digital Scorpio 2½" and Greenpower 3½" HDDs per quarterly conference, July 2007
  11. ^ PC Magazine comparison of 136 desktops shows 60 in this HDD capacity range with 50 larger and 26 smaller capacities [1]
  12. ^ a b Seagate Cheetah 15K.5[2]
  13. ^ Walter, Chip. "Kryder's Law", Scientific American, Verlagsgruppe Georg von Holtzbrinck GmbH, 25 July 2005. Retrieved on 2006-10-29. 
  14. ^ Seagate Outlines the Future of Storage :: Articles :: www.hardwarezone.com®
  15. ^ a b Hitachi's 7K1000 Terabyte Hard Drive
  16. ^ Seagate, Samsung Begin to Ship 1 TB Desktop Hard Drives
  17. ^ WD Caviar GP: The "Green" 1 TB Drive
  18. ^ Seagate Elite 47, shipped 12/97 per 1998 Disk/Trend Report - Rigid Disk Drives
  19. ^ Quantum Bigfoot TS, shipped 10/98 per 1999 Disk/Trend Report - Rigid Disk Drives
  20. ^ The Quantum Bigfoot TS used a maximum of 3 platters, other earlier and lower capacity product used up to 4 platters in a 5.25" HH form factor, e.g. Microscience HH1090 circa 1989.
  21. ^ Hitachi announces 500GB laptop drive. 080103 http://www.macworld.com
  22. ^ Samsung unveils 160GB iPod-sized drive. 070808 macnn.com
  23. ^ SDK Starts Shipments of 1.3-Inch PMR-Technology-Based HD Media
  24. ^ One Drive, Multiple Applications - Tom's Hardware : WD's New Raptor Drive Is a Bird of Prey!
  25. ^ 1.3" HDD Product Specification, Samsung, 2008
  26. ^ Toshiba's 0.85-inch HDD is set to bring multi-gigabyte capacities to small, powerful digital products, Toshiba press release, 8 January 2004
  27. ^ Toshiba enters Guinness World Records Book with the world's smallest hard disk drive, Toshiba press release, 16 March 2004
  28. ^ Flash price fall shakes HDD market, EETimes Asia, 1 August 2007.
  29. ^ Barracuda 7200.10 Serial ATA Product Manual
  30. ^ Pugh et al; "IBM's 360 and Early 370 Systems;" MIT Press, 1991, pp.270
  31. ^ Toshiba HDD Protection measures.
  32. ^ a b c d Barroso, L.A., et al. Failure Trends in a Large Disk Drive Population. February 2007.
  33. ^ Everything You Know About Disks Is Wrong. StorageMojo (February 20, 2007). Retrieved on 2007-08-29.
  34. ^ Apparently the CMI disks suffered from a higher soft error rate than IBM's other suppliers (Seagate and MiniScribe) but the bugs in Microsoft's DOS Operating system may have turned these recoverable errors into hard failures. At some point, possibly MS-DOS 3.0, soft errors were reported as disk hard errors and a subsequent Microsoft patch turned soft errors into corrupted memory with unpredictable <link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Lupin/navpop.css&action=raw&ctype=text/css&dontcountme=s">results ("crashes"). MS-DOS 3.3 apparently resolved this series of problems but by that time it was too late for CMI. See also, "IBM and CMI in Joint Effort to Rehab AT Hard-Disk Rejects," PC Week, v.2 n.11, p.1, March 19, 1985
  35. ^ COMPANY NEWS; Tandon Sells Disk Drive Unit. The New York Times (1988-03-09). Retrieved on 2008-02-22.
  36. ^ WD Raptor X: The World's Only Clear-Cover Hard Drive. Retrieved on 2008-05-05.
  37. ^ Hitachi ships first 1TB hard drive. Retrieved on 2007-12-12.
  38. ^ First hands-on with the only 1 TB drive. Retrieved on 2007-08-13.
  39. ^ Hitachi Deskstar 7K1000 Terabyte Hard Drive Review. Retrieved on 2007-08-13.
  40. ^ Western Digital buys Komag for $1 Billion. Retrieved on 2007-08-18.
  41. ^ WD VelociRaptor. Retrieved on 2008-05-05.

[edit] External links

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