User:GVWilson/Depleted uranium (new refs)

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A depleted uranium storage yard
A depleted uranium storage yard

Depleted uranium (DU) is uranium that has a reduced proportion of the isotope Uranium-235. It is mostly made up of Uranium-238. The names Q-metal, depletalloy, and D-38, which once applied to depleted uranium, have fallen into disuse.

Its high density has made it a valued component in applications including military projectiles. Such uses remain controversial, as all forms of uranium are toxic.

Contents

[edit] Sources

Depleted uranium is a byproduct of the enriching of natural uranium for use in nuclear reactors. When most of the fissile radioactive isotopes of uranium are removed from natural uranium, the residue is called depleted uranium. A less common source of the material is reprocessed spent reactor fuel. The origin can be distinguished by the content of uranium-236,[1] produced by neutron capture from uranium-235 in nuclear reactors.

As a toxic and radioactive waste product that requires long term storage as low level nuclear waste, depleted uranium is costly to keep but relatively inexpensive to obtain. Generally the only real costs are those associated with conversion of UF6 to metal. It is extremely dense, 67% denser than lead, only slightly less than tungsten and gold, and just 16% less dense than osmium or iridium, the densest naturally occurring substances known. Its low cost makes it attractive for a variety of uses. However, the material is prone to corrosion and small particles are pyrophoric.[2]

[edit] History

Depleted uranium was first stored in stockpiles in the 1940s when the U.S. and USSR began their nuclear weapons and nuclear power programs. While it is possible to design civilian power reactors with unenriched fuel, only about 10% of reactors ever built utilize that technology, and both nuclear weapons production and naval reactors require the concentrated isotope. Originally, DU was conserved in the hope that more efficient enrichment techniques would allow further extraction of the fissile isotope; however, those hopes have not materialized.

In the 1970s, The Pentagon reported that the Soviet military had developed armor plating for Warsaw Pact tanks that NATO ammunition couldn't penetrate. The Pentagon began searching for material to make denser bullets. After testing various metals, ordnance researchers settled on depleted uranium. DU was useful in ammunition not only because of its unique physical properties and effectiveness, but also because it was cheap and readily available. Tungsten, the only other candidate, had to be sourced from China. With DU stockpiles estimated to be more than 500,000 tons, the financial burden of housing this amount of low-level radioactive waste was very apparent. It was therefore more economical to use depleted uranium rather than storing it. Thus, from the late 1970s, the U.S., the Soviet Union, Britain and France, began converting their stockpiles of depleted uranium into kinetic energy penetrators.

Photographic evidence of destroyed equipment suggests that DU was first used during the 1973 Arab-Israeli war. Various written reports cite information that was obtained as a consequence of that use.[3] However, while clearing the decades-old Hawaii Stryker firing range, workers have found chemical weapons from World War I era and depleted uranium ammunition from the 1960s.[4]. The U.S. military used DU shells in the 1991 Gulf War and the 2003 Iraq War.[5]

[edit] Production and availability

Natural uranium metal contains about 0.71% U-235, 99.28% U-238, and about 0.0054% U-234. In order to produce enriched uranium, the process of isotope separation removes a substantial portion of the U-235 for use in nuclear power, weapons, or other uses. The remainder, depleted uranium, contains only 0.2% to 0.4% U-235. Because natural uranium begins with such a low percentage of U-235, the enrichment process produces large quantities of depleted uranium. For example, producing 1 kg of 5% enriched uranium requires 11.8 kg of natural uranium, and leaves about 10.8 kg of depleted uranium with only 0.3% U-235 remaining.[6]

The Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) defines depleted uranium as uranium with a percentage of the 235U isotope that is less than 0.711% by weight (See 10 CFR 40.4.) The military specifications designate that the DU used by DoD contain less than 0.3% 235U (AEPI, 1995). In actuality, DoD uses only DU that contains approximately 0.2% 235U (AEPI, 1995).

World Depleted Uranium Inventory
Country Organization DU Stocks (in tonnes) Reported
Flag of the United States USA DOE 480,000 2002
Flag of Russia Russia FAEA 460,000 1996
Flag of France France COGEMA 190,000 2001
Flag of Israel Israel BNFL 50,000 2001
Flag of the United Kingdom UK BNFL 30,000 2001
Flag of Germany Germany URENCO 16,000 1999
Flag of Japan Japan JNFL 10,000 2001
Flag of the People's Republic of China China CNNC 2,000 2000
Flag of South Korea South Korea KAERI 200 2002
Flag of South Africa South Africa NECSA 73 2001
TOTAL 1,188,273 2002
Source: WISE Uranium Project[7]

[edit] Military applications

Depleted uranium is very dense; at 19050 kg/m³, it is 70% denser than lead. Thus a given weight of it has a smaller diameter than an equivalent lead projectile, with less aerodynamic drag and deeper penetration due to a higher pressure at point of impact. DU projectile ordnance is often incendiary because of its pyrophoric property.

[edit] Armor plate

Because of its high density, depleted uranium can also be used in tank armor, sandwiched between sheets of steel armor plate. For instance, some late-production M1A1HA and M1A2 Abrams tanks built after 1998 have DU reinforcement as part of its armor plating in the front of the hull and the front of the turret and there is a program to upgrade the rest.

[edit] Ammunition

DU penetrator from the PGU-14/B incendiary 30mm round.
DU penetrator from the PGU-14/B incendiary 30mm round.

Most military use of depleted uranium has been as 30 mm and smaller ordnance, primarily the 30 mm PGU-14/B armour-piercing incendiary round from the GAU-8 Avenger cannon of the A-10 Thunderbolt II[8] used by the U.S. Air Force. 25 mm DU rounds have been used in the M242 gun mounted on the U.S. Army's Bradley Fighting Vehicle and LAV-AT. The U.S. Marine Corps uses DU in the 25 mm PGU-20 round fired by the GAU-12 Equalizer cannon of the AV-8B Harrier, and also in the 20 mm M197 gun mounted on AH-1 helicopter gunships. The US Navy's Phalanx CIWS's M61 Vulcan gatling gun used 20 mm armor-piercing penetrator rounds with discarding plastic sabots which were made using depleted uranium, later changed to tungsten.

Depleted uranium is also used in kinetic energy penetrators anti-armor tank rounds. These kinetic energy penetrator rounds consist of a long, relatively thin penetrator surrounded by discarding sabot. Two materials lend themselves to penetrator construction: tungsten and depleted uranium, the latter in designated alloys known as staballoys. Staballoys are metal alloys of depleted uranium with a very small proportion of other metals, usually titanium or molybdenum. One formulation has a composition of 99.25% by weight of depleted uranium and 0.75% by weight of titanium. Another variant can have 3.5% by weight of titanium. Staballoys are about twice as dense as lead and are designed for use in kinetic energy penetrator armor-piercing ammunition. The US Army uses DU in an alloy with around 3.5% titanium. Staballoys, along with lower raw material costs, have the advantage of being easy to melt and cast into shape, although they are subject to spalling.

1987 photo of Mark 149 Mod 2 20mm depleted uranium ammunition for the Phalanx CIWS aboard USS Missouri (BB-63).
1987 photo of Mark 149 Mod 2 20mm depleted uranium ammunition for the Phalanx CIWS aboard USS Missouri (BB-63).

Depleted uranium is favored for the penetrator because it is self-sharpening and pyrophoric. On impact with a hard target, such as an armored vehicle, the nose of the rod shears away such that it remains sharp. The impact and subsequent release of heat energy causes part of the penetrator to disintegrate into dust and burn explosively when it reaches air because of its pyrophoric properties. The exploding depleted uranium aerosol often ignites ammunition and fuel, incinerating the crew, and causing the vehicle to explode. DU is used by the U.S. Army in 120 mm or 105 mm cannons employed on the M1 Abrams and M60A3 tanks. The Russian military has used DU ammunition in tank main gun ammunition since the late 1970s, mostly for the 115 mm guns in the T-62 tank and the 125 mm guns in the T-64, T-72, T-80, and T-90 tanks.

The DU content in various ammunition is 180 g in 20 mm projectiles, 200 g in 25 mm ones, 280g in 30 mm, 3.5 kg in 105 mm, and 4.5 kg in 120 mm penetrators. It is used in the form of staballoy. The US Navy used DU in its 20 mm Phalanx CIWS guns, but switched in the late 1990s to armor-piercing tungsten for this application, because of the fire risk associated with stray pyrophoric rounds. DU was used during the mid-1990s in the U.S. to make 9 mm and similar caliber armor piercing bullets, grenades, cluster bombs, and mines, but those applications have been discontinued, according to Alliant Techsystems. Whether or not other nations still make such use of DU is difficult to determine.

It is thought that between 17 and 20 states have weapons incorporating depleted uranium in their arsenals. They include the USA, the UK, France, Russia, Greece, Turkey, Israel, Saudi Arabia, Bahrain, Egypt, Kuwait, Pakistan, Thailand, Iraq and Taiwan. DU ammunition is manufactured in 18 countries. While only the US and the UK have acknowledged using DU weapons, its use by other states cannot be excluded[9].

[edit] Health considerations

The health effects of DU are determined by factors such as the extent of the exposure and whether it was internal or external. Three main pathways exist by which internalization of uranium may occur: inhalation, ingestion, and embedded fragments or shrapnel contamination. Properties such as phase (e.g. particulate or gaseous), oxidation state (e.g. metallic or ceramic), and the solubility of uranium and its compounds influence their absorption, distribution, translocation, elimination and the resulting toxicity. For example, metallic uranium is relatively non-toxic compared to hexavalent uranium(VI) compounds such as uranyl nitrate.[10]

[edit] Chemical and radiological hazards

The chemical toxicity of uranium salts is about a million times greater than its radiological toxicity.[11] Uranium is pyrophoric when finely divided. It will corrode under the influence of air and water producing insoluble uranium(IV) and soluble uranium(VI) salts. Soluble uranium salts are toxic. Uranium accumulates in several organs, such as the liver, spleen, and kidneys. The World Health Organization has established a daily "tolerated intake" of soluble uranium salts for the general public of 0.5 µg/kg body weight (or 35 µg for a 70 kg adult.)

The radiological dangers of pure depleted uranium are 60% lower than those of naturally-occurring uranium due to the removal of the more radioactive isotopes, as well as due to its long half-life of 4.5 billion years. Depleted uranium differs from natural uranium in its isotopic composition, but its biochemistry is for the most part the same. Its radiological hazards are dependent on the purity of the uranium, and there has been some concern that depleted uranium produced as a by-product of nuclear reprocessing may be contaminated with more dangerous isotopes: this should not be a concern for depleted uranium produced as tailings from initial uranium enrichment. However, when alpha emitting radionuclides are taken into the body they become the most serious of all types of radiation hazards.[12]

[edit] Birth defects and other affects

Graph showing the rate per 1,000 births of congenital malformations observed at Basra University Hospital, Iraq, as reported by I. Al-Sadoon, et al., writing in the Medical Journal of Basrah University, (see Table 1 here). This version from data by same author(s) in Wilcock, A.R., ed. (2004) "Uranium in the Wind" (Ontario: Pandora Press.)
Graph showing the rate per 1,000 births of congenital malformations observed at Basra University Hospital, Iraq, as reported by I. Al-Sadoon, et al., writing in the Medical Journal of Basrah University, (see Table 1 here). This version from data by same author(s) in Wilcock, A.R., ed. (2004) "Uranium in the Wind" (Ontario: Pandora Press.)

Children of British soldiers who fought in wars in which depleted uranium ammunition was used are at greater risk of suffering genetic diseases such as congenital malformations, commonly called "birth defects," passed on by their fathers. Veterans of the conflicts in the Gulf, Bosnia and Kosovo have been found to have up to 14 times the usual level of chromosome abnormalities in their genes.[13]

Early scientific studies usually found no link between depleted uranium and cancer, and sometimes found no link with increases in the rate of birth defects, but newer studies have and offered explanation of birth defect links. There is no direct proof that uranium causes birth defects in humans, but it induces them in several other species of mammals, and human epidemiological evidence is consistent with increased risk of birth defects in the offspring of persons exposed to DU.[14] Environmental groups and others have expressed concern about the health effects of depleted uranium,[15] and there is significant debate over the matter. Some people have raised concerns about the use of this material, particularly in munitions, because of its proven mutagenicity,[16] teratogenicity,[17][18] in animals, and neurotoxicity,[19][20][21][22] and its suspected carcinogenic potential, because it remains radioactive for an exceedingly long time with a half-life of 4.5 billion years, and because it is also toxic in a manner similar to lead and other heavy metals.

A 2001 study of 15,000 February 1991 U.S. Gulf War combat veterans and 15,000 control veterans found that the Gulf War veterans were 1.8 (fathers) to 2.8 (mothers) times more likely to have children with birth defects.[23] After examination of children's medical records two years later, the birth defect rate increased by more than 20%:

"Dr. Kang found that male Gulf War veterans reported having infants with likely birth defects at twice the rate of non-veterans. Furthermore, female Gulf War veterans were almost three times more likely to report children with birth defects than their non-Gulf counterparts. The numbers changed somewhat with medical records verification. However, Dr. Kang and his colleagues concluded that the risk of birth defects in children of deployed male veterans still was about 2.2 times that of non-deployed veterans."[24]

In a study of U.K. troops, "Overall, the risk of any malformation among pregnancies reported by men was 50% higher in Gulf War Veterans (GWV) compared with Non-GWVs."[25]

In 2001, doctors at the hospital in Kosovska Mitrovica reported that the number of patients suffering from malignant diseases increased by 200% since 1998.[26] In the same year, The World Health Organization said there has been no reported increase in cancer among the civilian population in Kosovo.[27]

By contrast, other studies have shown that DU ammunition has no measurable detrimental health effects, either in the short or long term. The International Atomic Energy Agency reported in 2003 that, "based on credible scientific evidence, there is no proven link between DU exposure and increases in human cancers or other significant health or environmental impacts," although "Like other heavy metals, DU is potentially poisonous. In sufficient amounts, if DU is ingested or inhaled it can be harmful because of its chemical toxicity. High concentration could cause kidney damage."[28]

[edit] Patterns of exposure

Approximate area and major clashes in which DU bullets and rounds were used in the Gulf War
Approximate area and major clashes in which DU bullets and rounds were used in the Gulf War

Early studies of depleted uranium aerosol exposure assumed that uranium combustion product particles would quickly settle out of the air[29] and thus could not affect populations more than a few kilometers from target areas,[30] and that such particles, if inhaled, would remain undissolved in the lung for a great length of time and thus could be detected in urine.[31] Burning uranium droplets violently produce a gaseous vapor comprising about half of the uranium in their original mass.[32] Uranium trioxide is produced when uranium burns.[33] Uranyl ion contamination in uranium oxides has been detected in the residue of DU munitions fires.[34]

DU can disperse into the air and water.[35] The most important concern is the potential for future groundwater contamination by corroding penetrators (ammunition tips made out of DU). The munition tips recovered by the United Nations Environment Programme team had already decreased in mass by 10-15% in this way. This rapid corrosion speed underlines the importance of monitoring the water quality at the DU sites on an annual basis.[36]

In October, 1992, an El Al Boeing 747-F cargo aircraft crashed in a suburb of Amsterdam. After reports of local residents and rescue workers complaining of health issues related to the release of depleted uranium used as counterbalance in the plane, authorities began an epidemiological study in 2000 of those believed to be affected by the accident. The study concluded that because exposure levels were so low, it was highly improbable that exposure to depleted uranium was the cause of the reported health complaints.[citation needed]

For further details see Actinides in the environment.

[edit] Gulf War syndrome

Main article: Gulf War syndrome

Increased rates of immune system disorders and other wide-ranging symptoms have been reported in combat veterans of the 1991 Gulf War. It has not always been clear whether these were related to Gulf War service, but combustion products from depleted uranium munitions is still being considered as a potential cause by the Research Advisory Committee on Gulf War Veterans' Illnesses, as DU was used in tank kinetic energy penetrator and machine-gun bullets on a large scale for the first time in the Gulf War.

Some experts in health physics consider it unlikely that depleted uranium has any connection with the Gulf War Syndrome, if such an illness exists at all. A two year study headed by Sandia National Laboratories' Al Marshall analyzed potential health effects associated with accidental exposure to depleted uranium during the 1991 Gulf War. Marshall's study concluded that the reports of serious health risks from DU exposure are not supported by his analysis and are not supported by veteran medical statistics. The Sandia study was not comprehensive because it considered only the radiological risks of depleted uranium exposure,[37] but not the substantial toxicological[38][39] and reproductive risks.[14]

In 2005, uranium metalworkers at a Bethlehem plant near Buffalo, New York, exposed to frequent occupational uranium inhalation risks, were found to have the same patterns of symptoms and illness as Gulf War Syndrome victims.[40][41]

[edit] Soldier complaints

American soldiers are complaining of injuries that they attribute to depleted uranium. In early 2004, the UK Pensions Appeal Tribunal Service attributed birth defect claims from a February 1991 Gulf War combat veteran to depleted uranium poisoning.[42][43]

The US and UK governments have been attempting to monitor Gulf War veteran uranium exposure using urine tests.[44] Urine assay for uranium inhalation exposure can be useful, provided that measurements are made soon after a known acute intake. The urinary excretion rate falls substantially after exposure, particularly during the first few days. If urine analysis is carried out on a routine basis not related to the pattern of intake, then the errors in the assessment of intake can be considerable.[45] Exposure to teratogens may be measured by karyotype tests such as those most often provided for biopsy and amniocentesis. Soluble and most partially-soluble uranyl compounds affect gonadal chromosomes in proportion to the extent that they affect white blood cell chromosomes.[46] Uranyl poisoning causes immune system disorders and may cause cancer.[47]

[edit] Legal status in weapons

In 1996 the International Court of Justice (ICJ) gave an advisory opinion on the "legality of the threat or use of nuclear weapons".[48] This made it clear, in paragraphs 54, 55 and 56, that international law on poisonous weapons, – the Second Hague Declaration of 29 July 1899, Hague Convention IV of 18 October 1907 and the Geneva Protocol of 17 June 1925 – did not cover nuclear weapons, because their prime or exclusive use was not to poison or asphyxiate. This ICJ opinion was about nuclear weapons, but the sentence "The terms have been understood, in the practice of States, in their ordinary sense as covering weapons whose prime, or even exclusive, effect is to poison or asphyxiate." also removes depleted uranium weaponry from coverage by the same treaties as their primary use is not to poison or asphyxiate, but to destroy materiel and kill soldiers through kinetic energy.

The Sub-Commission on Prevention of Discrimination and Protection of Minorities of the United Nations Human Rights Commission[49], passed two motions [50] the first in 1996[51] and the second in 1997[52]. They listed weapons of mass destruction, or weapons with indiscriminate effect, or of a nature to cause superfluous injury or unnecessary suffering and urged all states to curb the production and the spread of such weapons. Included in the list was weaponry containing depleted uranium. The committee authorized a working paper, in the context of human rights and humanitarian norms, of the weapons. The requested UN working paper was delivered in 2002[53] by Y.K.J. Yeung Sik Yuen in accordance with Sub-Commission on Promotion and Protection of Human Rights resolution 2001/36. He argues that the use of DU in weapons, along with the other weapons listed by the Sub-Commission, may breach one or more of the following treaties: The Universal Declaration of Human Rights; the Charter of the United Nations; the Genocide Convention; the United Nations Convention Against Torture; the Geneva Conventions including Protocol I; the Convention on Conventional Weapons of 1980; and the Chemical Weapons Convention. Yeung Sik Yuen writes in Paragraph 133 under the title "Legal compliance of weapons containing DU as a new weapon":

Annex II to the Convention on the Physical Protection of Nuclear Material 1980 (which became operative on 8 February 1997) classifies DU as a category II nuclear material. Storage and transport rules are set down for that category which indicates that DU is considered sufficiently "hot" and dangerous to warrant these protections. But since weapons containing DU are relatively new weapons no treaty exists yet to regulate, limit or prohibit its use. The legality or illegality of DU weapons must therefore be tested by recourse to the general rules governing the use of weapons under humanitarian and human rights law which have already been analysed in Part I of this paper, and more particularly at paragraph 35 which states that parties to Protocol I to the Geneva Conventions of 1949 have an obligation to ascertain that new weapons do not violate the laws and customs of war or any other international law. As mentioned, the ICJ considers this rule binding customary humanitarian law.

In 2001, Carla del Ponte, the chief prosecutor for the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, said that NATO's use of depleted uranium in former Yugoslavia could be investigated as a possible war crime[54]. Louise Arbour, del Ponte's predecessor as chief prosecutor, had created a small, internal committee, made up of staff lawyers, to assess the allegation. Their findings, that were accepted and endorsed by del Ponte,[55] concluded that:

There is no specific treaty ban on the use of DU projectiles. There is a developing scientific debate and concern expressed regarding the impact of the use of such projectiles and it is possible that, in future, there will be a consensus view in international legal circles that use of such projectiles violate general principles of the law applicable to use of weapons in armed conflict. No such consensus exists at present. (Emphasis added)[56]

[edit] Civilian applications

Civilian applications for depleted uranium are fairly limited and are typically unrelated to its radioactive properties. It primarily finds application as ballast because of its high density. Such applications include sailboat keels, as counterweights and sinker bars in oil drills, gyroscope rotors, and in other places where there is a need to place a weight that occupies as little space as possible. Other relatively minor consumer product uses have included: incorporation into dental porcelain used for false teeth to simulate the fluorescence of natural teeth; and in uranium-bearing reagents used in chemistry laboratories.

Uranium was widely used as a coloring matter for porcelain and glass in the 19th century. The practice was believed to be a matter of history, however in 1999 concentrations of 10% depleted uranium were found in "jaune no.17" a yellow enamel powder that was being produced in France by Cristallerie de Saint-Paul, a manufacturer of enamel pigments. The depleted uranium used in the powder was sold by Cogéma's Pierrelatte facility. Cogema has since confirmed that it has made a decision to stop the sale of depleted uranium to producers of enamel and glass.[57]

DU is also used for shielding for radiation sources used in medical and industrial radiography.

U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission regulations at 10 CFR 40.25 establish mandatory licensing for the use of depleted uranium contained in industrial products or devices for mass-volume applications. Other jurisdictions have similar regulations

[edit] Trim weights in aircraft

Aircraft may also contain depleted uranium trim weights (a Boeing 747-100 may contain 400 to 1,500 kg). This application of DU is controversial. If an aircraft crashes there is concern that the uranium would enter the environment: the metal can oxidize to a fine powder in a fire. While arguably other hazardous materials released from a burning commercial aircraft overshadow the contributions made by DU, its use has been phased out in many newer aircraft, Both Boeing and McDonnell-Douglas discontinued using DU counterweights in the 1980s.

[edit] Uranium hexafluoride

About 95% of the depleted uranium produced is stored as uranium hexafluoride, (D)UF6, in steel cylinders in open air yards close to enrichment plants. Each cylinder contains up to 12.7 tonnes (or 14 US tons) of UF6. In the U.S. alone, 560,000 tonnes of depleted UF6 had accumulated by 1993. In 2005, 686,500 tonnes in 57,122 storage cylinders were located near Portsmouth, Ohio, Oak Ridge, Tennessee, and Paducah, Kentucky.[58] The long-term storage of DUF6 presents environmental, health, and safety risks because of its chemical instability. When UF6 is exposed to moist air, it reacts with the water in the air to produce UO2F2 (uranyl fluoride) and HF (hydrogen fluoride) both of which are highly soluble and toxic. Storage cylinders must be regularly inspected for signs of corrosion and leaks. The estimated life time of the steel cylinders is measured in decades.[59]

Hexafluoride tank leaking.
Hexafluoride tank leaking.

There have been several accidents involving uranium hexafluoride in the United States.[60] The U.S. government has been converting DUF6 to solid uranium oxides for disposal.[61] Such disposal of the entire DUF6 inventory could cost anywhere from 15 to 450 million dollars.[62]

[edit] Footnotes

  1. ^ United Nations Environment Programme (2001) "UN Environment Programme Confirms U-236 Found in D.U. Penetrators," UNEP Press Release UNEP/81
  2. ^ U.S. Department of Energy (1994) "Uranium," Section E, Primer on Spontaneous Heating and Pyrophoricity, DoE Handbook DOE-HDBK-1081-94.
  3. ^ Rokke, D. (2001) "Depleted Uranium: Uses and Hazards," based on the paper presented in the British House of Commons on December 16, 1999
  4. ^ McAvoy, A. (August 2, 2006) "Clearing work suspended at Hawaii Stryker range," Army Times
  5. ^ Hastings, D. (August 12, 2006) "Is an Armament Sickening U.S. Soldiers?" Associated Press, last accessed November 1, 2006)
  6. ^ The WISE Uranium Project (2006) "Depleted/Enriched Uranium Fraction Calculator," JavaScript application and database.
  7. ^ WISE Uranium Project (2002) "Depleted Uranium Inventories," see also World Depleted Uranium Inventory Map (Java required.)
  8. ^ "USAF A-10 Thunderbolt Striker" formerly at web site jiatelin.jschina.com.cn/attacker/eng/a1005.htm [dead link – history]
  9. ^ The International Legality of the Use of Depleted Uranium Weapons: A Precautionary Approach, Avril McDonald, Jann K. Kleffner and Brigit Toebes, eds. (TMC Asser Press Fall-2003)
  10. ^ «Gmelin Handbuch der anorganischen Chemiek» 8th edition, English translation, Gmelin Handbook of Inorganic Chemistry, vol. U-A7 (1982) pp. 300-322.
  11. ^ Miller, A.C. (2002) "Depleted uranium-catalyzed oxidative DNA damage: absence of significant alpha particle decay," Journal of Inorganic Biochemistry, 91, pp. 246-252; PMID 12121782.
  12. ^ Giffin, N. (1996) "Alpha Particles," TRIUMF Radiation Protection Training Course (Canada: TRIUMF Safety Group.)
  13. ^ Fleming, N. and Townsend, M. (August 11, 2002) "Gulf veteran babies 'risk deformities'," The Observer, (London: Guardian News and Media, Ltd.)
  14. ^ a b Hindin, R. et al. (2005) "Teratogenicity of depleted uranium aerosols: A review from an epidemiological perspective," Environmental Health, vol. 4, pp. 17.
  15. ^ A.L. Kennedy (2003) "Our gift to Iraq," Guardian Unlimited, Guardian Newspapers, U.K.
  16. ^ Monleau, M., et al. (2006) "Genotoxic and Inflammatory Effects of Depleted Uranium Particles Inhaled by Rats," Toxicological Sciences 89(1):287-295; doi:10.1093/toxsci/kfj010
  17. ^ Arfsten, D.P., et al. (2001) "A review of the effects of uranium and depleted uranium exposure on reproduction and fetal development," Toxicology and industrial health 17(5-10):180-91; PMID 12539863.
  18. ^ Domingo, J.L. (2001) "Reproductive and developmental toxicity of natural and depleted uranium: a review" Reproductive Toxicology, 15, 603-609; PMID 11738513.
  19. ^ W. Briner and J. Murray (2005) "Effects of short-term and long-term depleted uranium exposure on open-field behavior and brain lipid oxidation in rats," Neurotoxicology and Teratology 27(1):135-44; PMID 15681127.
  20. ^ Monleau, M. et al. (2005) "Bioaccumulation and behavioural effects of depleted uranium in rats exposed to repeated inhalations," Neuroscience Letters, vol. 390, pp. 31-6.
  21. ^ Lestaevel, P. et al. (2005) "The brain is a target organ after acute exposure to depleted uranium" Toxicology, 212, 219-226.
  22. ^ Jiang, G.C. and Aschner, M. (2006) "Neurotoxicity of Depleted Uranium: Reasons for Increased Concern," Biological Trace Element Research, vol. 110(1), pp. 1-18; PMID 16679544.
  23. ^ Kang, H., et al.' (2001) "Pregnancy Outcomes Among U.S. Gulf War Veterans: A Population-Based Survey of 30,000 Veterans," Annals of Epidemiology, 11(7), pp. 504-511; PMID 11557183.
  24. ^ Department of Veterans Affairs (2003) "Q's & A's - New Information Regarding Birth Defects," Gulf War Review 12(1), p. 10.
  25. ^ Doyle, P., et al. (2004) "Miscarriage, stillbirth and congenital malformation in the offspring of UK veterans of the first Gulf war," International Journal of Epidemiology, 33(1), pp. 74-86; PMID 15075150.
  26. ^ Rowland, J. (January 15, 2001) "Uranium tests for Serbs," BBC News.
  27. ^ Kelly, P. (January 7, 2001) "Cancer Among NATO Troops Linked to Ammunition Used in Balkans," CNN Sunday.
  28. ^ International Atomic Energy Agency (2003-5) "Frequently Asked Questions," Features: Depleted Uranium on the IAEA News Center web site.
  29. ^ Rostker, B. (2000) "Research Report Summaries," Depleted Uranium in the Gulf (II) Environmental Exposure Report no. 2000179-2, Office of the Special Assistant for Gulf War Illnesses, Department of Defense.
  30. ^ Mitsakou, C., et al. (2003) "Modeling of the dispersion of depleted uranium aerosol," Health Physics 84(4), pp. 538-544.
  31. ^ Horan, P., et al. (2003) "The quantitative analysis of depleted uranium isotopes in British, Canadian, and U.S. Gulf War veterans," Military Medicine 167(8), pp. 620-627; PMID 12188230.
  32. ^ Carter, R.F. and K. Stewart (1970) "On the oxide fume formed by the combustion of plutonium and uranium," Inhaled Particles 2, pp. 819-38; PMID 5527739.
  33. ^ Rostker, B. (2000) "Depleted Uranium in the Gulf (II)" Environmental Exposure Reports Tech. Rep. No. 2000179-2 (Washington, DC: Special Assistant for Gulf War Illnesses, Department of Defense)
  34. ^ Salbu, B. et al. (2005) "Oxidation states of uranium in depleted uranium particles from Kuwait," Journal of Environmental Radioactivity, 78, 125-135.
  35. ^ Sheppard, S.C., et al. (2005) "Derivation of ecotoxicity thresholds for uranium," Journal of Environmental Radioactivity, 79(1), pp. 55-83; PMID 15571876.
  36. ^ United Nations Environment Programme (2003) Desk Study on the Environment in Iraq. (Geneva, Switzerland: United Nations.)
  37. ^ Marshall, A.C. (2005) An Analysis of Uranium Dispersal and Health Effects Using a Gulf War Case Study, Sandia National Laboratories Reports
  38. ^ U.S. Center for Disease Control (1999) "Toxicological Profile for Uranium" Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, Division of Toxicology (includes discussion of teratogenic and immunotoxic effects.)
  39. ^ Sutton M, Burastero SR (2004). "Uranium(VI) solubility and speciation in simulated elemental human biological fluids". Chemical Research in Toxicology 17: 1468-1480. doi:10.1021/tx049878k. 
  40. ^ Bonfatti, J.F. (December 16, 2004) "Former Marine suffered from secret uranium work at Bethlehem, fought battle," Buffalo News.
  41. ^ Lombardi, K. (June 21, 2005) "Stirring Up the Toxic Dust," The Village Voice.
  42. ^ Williams, M. (February 9, 2004) "First Award for Depleted Uranium Poisoning Claim," The Herald Online, (Edinburgh: Herald Newspapers, Ltd.)
  43. ^ Campaign Against Depleted Uranium (Spring, 2004) "MoD Forced to Pay Pension for DU Contamination," CADU News 17 (quarterly newsletter at http://www.cadu.org.uk/ .)
  44. ^ Depleted Uranium Oversight Board (2006) "Summary of DUOB Activities," on www.duob.org.uk, accessed November 16, 2006.
  45. ^ Ansoborlo E (1998). "Exposure implications for uranium aerosols formed at a new laser enrichment facility: application of the ICRP respiratory tract and systemic model". Radiation Protection Dosimetry 79: 23-27. 
  46. ^ Schröder H, Heimers A, Frentzel-Beyme R, Schott A, Hoffman W (2003). "Chromosome Aberration Analysis in Peripheral Lymphocytes of Gulf War and Balkans War Veterans". Radiation Protection Dosimetry 103: 211-219. 
  47. ^ Wan, B., et al. (2006) "In vitro immune toxicity of depleted uranium: effects on murine macrophages, CD4+ T cells, and gene expression profiles," Environmental Health Perspectives, 114(1), pp. 85-91; PMID 16393663.
  48. ^ legality of the threat or use of nuclear weapons
  49. ^ Citizen Inspectors Foiled in Search for DU Weapons
  50. ^ Depleted Uranium UN Resolutions
  51. ^ Sub-Commission resolution 1996/16
  52. ^ Sub-Commission resolution 1997/36
  53. ^ E/CN.4/Sub.2/2002/38 Human rights and weapons of mass destruction, or with indiscriminate effect, or of a nature to cause superfluous injury or unnecessary suffering (backup) "In its decision 2001/36 of 16 August 2001, the Sub-Commission, recalling its resolutions 1997/36 and 1997/37 of 28 August 1997, authorized Mr. Y.K.J. Yeung Sik Yuen to prepare, without financial implications, in the context of human rights and humanitarian norms, the working paper originally assigned to Ms. Forero Ucros."
  54. ^ The Associated Press & Reuters contributed to this report: Use of DU weapons could be war crime CNN January 14, 2001
  55. ^ Joe Sills et al Environmental Crimes in Military Actions and the International Criminal. Court(ICC)-United Nations Perspectives (PDF) (HTML) of American Council for the UN University, April 2002. Page 28
  56. ^ The Final Report to the Prosecutor by the Committee Established to Review the NATO Bombing Campaign Against the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia: Use of Depleted Uranium Projectiles
  57. ^ WISE Uranium Project (2005) "Depleted Uranium found as Coloring Matter in Enamel (France)," Current Issues - Civilian Use of Depleted Uranium accessed on November 15, 2006.
  58. ^ Argonne National Laboratory, "How much depleted uranium hexafluoride is stored in the United States?" Frequently asked questions about uranium, uranium hexafluoride, UF6 storage and depleted UF6 management on the Depleted UF6 Management Information Network Web Site' see also the Depleted UF6 Management Program Documents.
  59. ^ Makhijani, A. (1997) "What is DUF6?" from the Dear Arjun series on the Institute for Energy and Environmental Research web site
  60. ^ Argonne National Laboratory, "Have there been accidents involving uranium hexafluoride?" Frequently asked questions about uranium, uranium hexafluoride, UF6 storage and depleted UF6 management.
  61. ^ Argonne National Laboratory, "What is going to happen to the uranium hexafluoride stored in the United States?," Frequently asked questions about uranium, uranium hexafluoride, UF6 storage and depleted UF6 management.
  62. ^ Argonne National Laboratory, "Are there any currently-operating disposal facilities that can accept all of the depleted uranium oxide that would be generated from conversion of DOE's depleted UF6 inventory?" Frequently asked questions about uranium, uranium hexafluoride, UF6 storage and depleted UF6 management.

[edit] Further references

[edit] Scientific bodies

[edit] United Nations

[edit] Scientific reports

  • RAND Corporation (1999) "Depleted Uranium," A Review of the Scientific Literature As It Pertains to Gulf War Illnesses, prepared for the Office of the Secretary of Defense (Santa Monica, California: National Defense Research Institute.)
  • Depleted Uranium article from the Royal Society
  • Royal Society, The Health Hazards of Depleted Uranium Munitions Part I, London, UK: The Royal Society; 2001.
  • Pellmer TC, Hogan JB, Benson KA, and Landauer MR. Toxicological Evaluation Of Depleted Uranium In Rats: Six Month Evaluation Point, Bethesda, MD: Armed Forces Radiobiology Research Institute; 1998.
  • Depleted Uranium Human Health Fact Sheet by Argonne National Laboratory Environmental Assessment Division
  • Uranium Human Health Fact Sheet
  • Lin RH, Wu LJ, Lee CH, Lin-Shiau SY, Cytogenetic toxicity of uranyl nitrate in Chinese hamster ovary cells, PMID 7694141
  • Miller AC, Bonait-Pellie C, Merlot RF, Michel J, Stewart M, Lison PD., Leukemic transformation of hematopoietic cells in mice internally exposed to depleted uranium, PMID 16283518
  • S.E. Mitchell, C.A. Caldwell, G. Gonzales, W.R. Gould and R. Arimoto (2005) "Effects of depleted uranium on survival, growth, and metamorphosis in the African clawed frog (Xenopus laevis)," Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health-Part A- Current Issues, 68, pp. 951-965; PMID 16020186.
  • M.L. Albina, M. Belles, M. Gomez, D.J. Sanchez and J.L Domingo (2003) "Influence of Maternal Stress on Uranium-Induced Developmental Toxicity in Rats," Experimental Biology and Medicine, 228, pp. 1072-1077; PMID 14530518.

[edit] Other publications

[edit] Video


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