User:Grover cleveland/French orthography

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1 Grapheme-to-phoneme correspondences
2 References

[edit] Grapheme-to-phoneme correspondences

This section lists French letters and letter combinations, and how to pronounce them transliterated into the International Phonetic Alphabet, based on the accent of the Paris region. Other regions may have significantly different pronunciations.^[1]. The vowels of French are a, e, i, o, u, and y together with all their accented forms. The remaining letters are consonants.

[edit] Consonants

In general, a written consonant (or sequence of consonants) can be pronounced differently in three different cases:

where it is non-final (i.e. there is at least one vowel later in the word).
where it is final (i.e. it is either the last letter in the word or part of a sequence of consonants that ends the word).
where it is the last letter in the word, and the next word in the sentence or clause starts with a vowel or mute "h". In this situation the final consonant that would otherwise be silent may be pronounced (sometimes in a manner different from its regular pronunciation). This phenomenon is known as liaison (linkage).

[edit] Non-final

b, bb: [b]. bout, [bu], "end". abbesse, [abɛs], "abbess"
b before "s" or "t": [p]. absolu, [apsɔly], "absolute".
c before "e" "i" or "y": [s]. ce, [sə], "this".
c elsewhere: [k]. car, [kaʁ], "for"/"because". Exception: second, [səgɔ̃], "second" and its derivatives.
ç before "a", "o" or "u": [s]. français, [fʁɑ̃sɛ], "French".
cc before "e", "i" or "y": [ks]. accepter, [aksɛpte], "to accept".
cc elsewhere: [k]. accueil, [akœj], "welcome" (noun).
ch where derived from Greek: [k]. chrétien, [kʁetjɛ̃], "Christian".
ch elsewhere: [ʃ]. chaque, [ʃak], "each".
cqu: [k]. acquis, [aki], "acquired".
cz initially: [ts] or [ks]. czar, [tsa:ʁ], "tsar". czardas, [ksaʁdɑ:s], "czardas". Found only in loanwords.
d, dd: [d]. dans, [dɑ̃], "in". addition, [adiʃjɔ̃], "addition".
dj: [dʒ]. adjectif, [adʒɛktif], "adjective".
f, ff: [f]. français, [fʁɑ̃sɛ], "French". affaire, [afɛʁ], "affair".
g before "e", "i" and "y": [ʒ]. arranger, [aʁɑ̃ʒe], "to arrange".
g elsewhere: [g]. goût, [gu], "taste".
gg before "e", "i" and "y": [gʒ]. suggestion, [sygʒɛstjɔ̃], "suggestion".
gg elsewhere: [g]. aggravation, [agʁavasjɔ̃], "aggravation".
gn: [ɲ]. agneau, [aɲo], "lamb".
h: always silent. hors, [ɔʁ], "outside".
j: [ʒ]. joue, [ʒu], "cheek".
k: [k]. kilo, [kilɔ], "kilogram".
l: [l]. le, [lə], "the" (masc. sing.).
ll following "i": can be either [j] or [l]. briller, [bʁije], "to shine". ville, [vil], "city".
ll elsewhere: [l]. vallée, [vale], "valley".
m before a vowel: [m]. mou, [mu], "soft".
m elsewhere: see section Vowels followed by non-prevocalic "m" or "n" below
n before a vowel: nous, [nu], "we", "us".
n elsewhere: see section Vowels followed by non-prevocalic "m" or "n" below
p, pp: [p]. premier, [pʁəmje], "first". supporter, [sypɔʁte], "to support".
ph: [f]. philosophie, [filɔzɔfi], "philosophy".
ps: [ps]. psychiatrie, [psikjatʁi], "psychiatry".
q: found non-finally only in the digraph qu.
qu: [k]. quart, [kaʁ], "quarter".
r, rr: [ʁ]. roue, [ʁu], "wheel". arriver, [aʁive], "to arrive". Some speakers may use [ʀ] or [r].
s between two vowels: [z]. présenter, [pʁezɑ̃te], "to present".
s elsewhere: [s]. sous, [su], "under".
sc before "e", "i" or "y": [s]. scientifique, [sjɑ̃tifik], "scientist". Exceptions: fascisme, [faʃism] as well as [fasism], "fascism" (and its derivatives).
sc elsewhere: [sk]. scolaire, [skɔlɛʁ], "educational".
sch where derived from Greek: [sk]. eschatologie, [ɛskatɔlɔʒi], "eschatology".
sch elsewhere: [ʃ]. schwa, [ʃva], "schwa".
ss: [s]. embrasser, [ɑ̃bʁase], "to kiss".
t, th, tt: [t]. tout, [tu], "all". thé, [te], "tea". battre, [batʁ], "to beat".
tch [tʃ]. Only found in foreign loan words. tchèque, [tʃɛk], "Czech".
tion following "s": [tjɔ̃]. bastion, [bastjɔ̃], "bastion".
tion elsewhere: [sjɔ̃]. action, [aksjɔ̃], "action".
tience: [sjɑ̃s]. impatience, [ɛ̃pasjɑ̃s], "impatience".
v: [v]. vous, [vu], "you".
w: only found in foreign loanwords. Most commonly [v] but can be [w]. wagon, [vagɔ̃], "railroad car". weekend, [wikɛnd], "weekend".
x before vowels: either [gz] or [ks]. examen, [ɛgzamɛ̃], "examination". sexe, [sɛks], "sex".
x before consonants: [ks]. export, [ɛkspɔʁ], "export".
x in forms derived from the numbers deux ("two"), six ("six") and dix ("ten"): [z]. deuxième, [døzjɛm], "second".
z: [z]. zoo, [zo], "zoo".

[edit] Final

This applies to any consonant that appears as the last letter or a word, or as part of a sequence of consonants that ends a word. French phonology has a high preference for open syllables, thus many consonants are silent when there is no later vowel in the word.

b not preceded by "m": [b]. club, [klœb], "club".
b after "m": silent. plomb, [plɔ̃], "lead".
c not preceded by "n": [k]. mec, [mɛk], "guy". Exceptions: silent in a few words such as tabac, [taba].
c after "n": silent. blanc, [blɑ̃]. Exceptions: zinc, [zɛ̃g], "zinc". donc, [dɔ̃k], "therefore".
ct: [kt]. direct, [diʁɛkt], "direct". Exceptions: resepect, [ʁɛspɛ], "respect" and aspect, [aspɛ], "aspect".
d: silent. pied, [pje], "foot". Exceptions: loanwords such as baroud, [baʁud], "combat".
f: [f]. neuf, [nœf], "nine".
g not preceded by "n": [g]. log, [lɔg], "logarithm" (abbreviation). Exception: the word bourg, [bu:ʁ], "town", also found in many place-names.
g after "n": silent. sang, [sɑ̃], "blood".
gt: silent. doigt, [dwa], "finger".
h: silent, but may lengthen preceding vowel. bah, [bɑ] (interjection).
j: not found finally
k: [k]. bolchevik, [bɔlʃəvik], "Bolshevik".
l after a vowel followed by "i": [j]. accueil, [akoej], "welcome".
l elsewhere: [l]. réel, [ʁeɛl], "real". Exception: fils, [fis], "son".
m: see section Vowels followed by non-prevocalic "m" or "n" below.
n: see section Vowels followed by non-prevocalic "m" or "n" below
p: silent. trop, [tʁo].
q: [k]. cinq, [sɛ̃k], "five". Many proper names do, e.g. Vidocq.
r after "e": May be silent, or may be pronounced [ʁ]. Always silent when an infinitive. présenter, [pʁezɑ̃te], "to present". fer, [fɛʁ], "iron".
r elsewhere: [ʁ]. or, [ɔʁ], "gold".
s: silent. temps, [tɑ̃], "time". Exceptions: [s] in fils, [fis], "son" and ours, [uʁs], "bear"; also in some proper names such as Francis, [fʁɑ̃sis].
st: [st]. Ouest, [wɛst], "West". Exception: est, [ɛ], "is".
t: silent. petit, [pəti], "small". Exception: huit, "eight" is pronounced [ɥit] when it is the last word in a phrase, but [ɥi] when the next word in the phrase begins with a consonant other than mute "h".
v: not found finally.
w: silent. bungalow, [bœ̃galo], "bungalow".
x: silent. jeux, [ʒø], "games". Exceptions: six, "six" is pronounced [sis] when it is the last word in a phrase, or when used as a noun, but [si] when the next word in the phrase begins with a consonant. dix, "ten" is similar. Pronounced [ks] in fax, [faks], "fax".
z: silent. chez, [ʃe], "at the house of". Exceptions: [z] in some proper names such as Berlioz, [bɛʁljɔz].

[edit] Liaison

Main article: Liaison (French)

Liaison applies to a word that ends in a written consonant that would otherwise be silent, when the next word begins with a written vowel or mute "h" (see below), and the two words are part of the same thought. Although h is considered a consonant, an occurrence of "h" at the beginning of a word can be either "mute" or "aspirated":

"Aspirated" h acts like a consonant for purposes of liaison
"Mute" h acts like a vowel for the purposes of liaison.

It is necessary to learn whether an initial appearance of h in any particular word is aspirated or mute. Note that, whether mute or aspirated, the pronunciation of h itself is always silent. Only liaisons used in regular spoken French are listed here: others may be made in formal contexts such as poetic recitation or song.

d: [t]. quand il, [kɑ̃til], "when he".
f: Generally no liaison but sometimes [v] as in the common phrases neuf ans, [nœvɑ̃], "nine years" and neuf heures, [nœvœ:ʁ], "nine o'clock".
g: Generally no liaison but sometimes [k] as in the phrase sang impur, [sɑ̃kɛ̃py:ʁ], "impure blood", found in La Marseillaise.
n: [n]. un homme, [œ̃nɔm], "a man".
p: Sometimes [p]. trop ancien, [tʁopɑ̃sjɛ̃], "too old".
r: Occasionally [ʁ]. dernier acte, [dɛʁnjɛʁakt], "final act".
s: [z]. les enfants, [lɛzɑ̃fɑ̃], "the children".
t: [t]. c'est impossible, [sɛtɛ̃pɔsibl], "it's impossible". Exceptions: The final "t" of the word et [e], "and", is never pronounced. In liaison, huit, "eight" is pronounced [ɥit].
x: [z]. jeux Olympiques, [ʒøzɔlɛ̃pik], "Olympic games". Note that six ("six") and dix ("ten") have three possible pronunciations: [sis] when the final word in a phrase or used as a noun, [si] when the next word in a phrase begins with a consonant, and [siz] when the next word begins with a vowel or mute "h". Thus il y en a dix, [ilijɑ̃nadis], "there are ten of them"; dix garçons, [digaʁsɔ̃], "ten boys"; dix enfants, [dizɑ̃fɑ̃], "ten children".
z: [z]. chez eux, [ʃɛzø], "at their house".

[edit] Vowels

For vowels followed by nonprevocalic "m" or "n": see the relevant section below.

à: [a]. là, [la], "there".
â: [ɑ:]. âme, [ɑ:m], "soul".
a before a pronounced [z]: [ɑ:]. extase, [ɛkstɑ:z], "ecstasy".
a elsewhere: [a]. ami, [ami], "friend".
ai when the last two letters in a word: [e]. gai, [ge], "happy".
ai elsewhere: [ɛ]. aider, [ɛde], "to help". Exception: [ə] in polysyllabic forms of the verb faire ("to do"): e.g. faisons, [fəzɔ̃], "let's do".
au before "r": [ɔ]. saurer, [sɔʁe], "to smoke (fish, etc.)".
au elsewhere: [o]. faux, [fo], "false".
ay: [ej]. payer, [peje], "to pay".
é: [e]. beauté, [bote], "beauty".
è: [ɛ:]. père, [pɛ:ʁ], "father".
ê: [ɛ]. même, [mɛm], "same".
e when the last letter in a word, and there is at least one other written vowel in the word: silent. même, [mɛm], "same".
e when the last letter in a word that has no other vowel: [ə]. me, [mə], "me".
e in the word que ("that"): [ə]. [kə].
e followed by word-final s, in a word containing other written vowels: silent. arbres, [aʁbʁ], "trees".
e followed by word-final s when the only vowel in the word: may be either [ɛ] or [e]. ces, [sɛ], "these". ses, [se], "his/her (pl.)".
e followed by word-final t: [ɛ]. muet, [mɥɛ], "silent". Exception: [e] in et, [e], "and".
e followed by any other single silent word-final consonant: [e]. payer, [peje], "to pay".
e followed by a single pronounced word-final consonant (including a consonant pronounced in liaison): [ɛ]. fer, [fɛʁ], "iron"..
e when followed by a consonant-vowel sequence (where the consonant is not x): [ə]. tenir, [təni:ʁ], "to hold".
e when followed by any other sequence of two or more consonants: [ɛ]. belle, [bɛl], "beautiful" (fem.).
ei before a pronounced [z]: [ɛ:]. seize, [sɛ:z], "sixteen.
ei elsewhere: [ɛ]. veille, [vɛj], "eve".
eu when the last pronounced sound in a word: [ø]. bleu, [blø], "blue".
eu when followed by a pronounced [z]: [ø]. creuser, [kʁøze], "to dig".
eu elsewhere: [œ]. neuf, [nœf], "nine".

[edit] Vowels followed by non-prevocalic "m" or "n"

Spelling	Value (IPA)	Example (IPA)	Exceptions
am before h	/am/	amharique /amaʁik/ "Amharic"
am before m	/a/	télégramme /telegʁam/ "telegram"
am before n	/am/	amnésie /amnezi/ "amnesia"	condamner /kɔ̃dɑne/ "to condemn" and related words
am at the end of word	/am/	tamtam /tamtam/ "tam-tam"	dam /dɑ̃/ "prejudice" adam /adɑ̃/ "Adam"
am elsewhere	/ɑ̃/	champs /ʃɑ̃/ "field"	hamster /amstɛ:ʁ/ "hamster" tamtam /tamtam/ "tam-tam" tramway /tʁamwɛ/ "tram"
an before h	/an/	piranha /piʁana/ "piranha"
an before m	/ɑ̃/	néanmoins /neɑ̃mwɛ̃/ "nevertheless"
an before n	/a/	canne /kan/ "cane"
an at the end of word	/ɑ̃/	an /ɑ̃/ "year"	barman /baʁman/ "barman" and other words using the English-derived suffix "man".
an elsewhere	/ɑ̃/	manger /mɑ̃ʒe/ "to eat"	pancake /pankɛk/ "pancake"
aim	/ɛ̃/	faim /fɛ̃/ "hunger"
ain	/ɛ̃/	ainsi /ɛ̃si/ "thus".
aon at the end of a word	/ɑ̃/	paon /pɑ̃/ "peacock"	lycaon /likaɔ̃/ "African Wild Dog" machaon /makaɔ̃/ "Old World Swallowtail" pharaon /faʁaɔ̃/ "Pharaoh"
aon followed by n	/a/	paonner /pane/ "to show off (like a peacock)"	pharaonne /faʁaɔn/ "female Pharaoh"
em before m at the beginning of a word	/ɑ̃/	emmêler /ɑ̃mɛle/ "to tangle"
em before m after word-initial r	/ɑ̃/	remmener /rɑ̃mne/ "to take back (a person)"
em before ment	/a/	fréquemment /fʁekamɑ̃/ "frequently"
em before m elsewhere	/ɛ/	dilemme /dilɛm/ "dilemma"	femme /fam/ "woman" and derived words
em before n	/ɛm/	indemne /ɛ̃dɛmn/ "intact"
em at the end of a word	/ɛm/	harem /aʁɛm/ "harem"
em elsewhere	/ɑ̃/	temps /tɑ̃/ "time"	kremlin /kʁɛmlɛ̃/ "Kremlin" nemrod /nɛmʁɔd/ "Nimrod" pemphigus /pɛ̃figys/ "pemphigus (a skin disease)" tempo /tɛmpo/ "tempo"
en before h	/ɛn/	menhir /mɛni:ʁ/ "menhir"
en before n at the beginning of a word	/ɑ̃/	ennui /ɑ̃nɥi/ "boredom"	ennemi /ɛnmi/ "enemy" ennième /enjɛm/ "Nth" ennéagone /ɛnneagɔn/ "nonagon"
en before n elsewhere	/ɛ/	penne /pɛn/ "flight feather"	décennie /deseni/ "decade" and related words henné /ene/ "henna" tennis /tenis/ "tennis"
en at the end of a word, following a consonant	/ɛn/	abdomen /abdomɛn/ "abdomen"	examen /ɛgzamɛ̃/ "examination" groschen /gʁɔʃœn/ "former Austrian currency" lichen /liken/ "lichen"
en at the end of a word, following a vowel	/ɛ̃/	lien /ljɛ̃/ "link"	yen /jɛn/ "Japanese currency"
en followed by word-final t, where this indicates the third-person plural form of a verb	silent	viennent /vjɛn/ "(they) come"
en in the sequences ience or ient	/ɑ̃/	science /sjɑ̃s/ "science" patient /pasjɑ̃/ "patient"	tient /tjɛ̃/ "(he) holds" vient /vjɛ̃/ "(he) comes"
en following i elsewhere	/ɛ̃/	hominiens /ɔminjɛ̃/ "homonid"	chienlit /ʃjɑ̃li/ "chaos" hacienda /asjɛnda/ "hacienda" récipiendaire /ʁesipjɑ̃dɛ:ʁ/ "recipient"
en following word-initial b	/ɛ̃/	benzine /bɛ̃zin/ "benzene"
en in the word-endings enda and dendron	/ɛ̃/	agenda /aʒɛ̃da/ "personal organizer" rhododendron /ʁɔdɔdɛ̃dʁɔ̃/ "rhododendron"	fazenda /fazɛnda/ "fazenda"
en elsewhere	/ɑ̃/	en /ɑ̃/ "in"	effendi /efɛ̃di/ "Effendi (Turkish title)" glockenspiel /glɔkɛnʃpil/ "glockenspiel" hendiadys /ɛ̃djadis/ "hendiadys" marengo /maʁɛ̃go/ "Marengo" martensite /maʁtɛ̃sit/ "Martensite" memento /memɛ̃to/ mendélévium /mɛ̃delevjɔm/ "Mendelevium" openfield /ɔpɛnfild/ "countryside" röntgen /ʁœntgɛn/ "Röntgen" week-end /wikɛnd/ "weekend"
eam not following g	/im/	ice-cream /ajskʁim/ "ice-cream" Found only in English loanwords
ean after j and before n	/an/	Jeanne /ʒan/ "Jeanne (personal name)"
ean after j elsewhere	/ɑ̃/	Jean /ʒɑ̃/ "Jean (personal name)"	blue-jean /bludʒin/
ean elsewhere not following g	/in/	peanut /pinoet/ "peanut" Found only in English loanwords
een	/in/	wintergreen /wintɛʁgʁin/ "wintergreen" Found only in English loanwords
eim	/ɛ̃/	Reims /ʁɛ̃s/ "Rheims (placename)"
ein	/ɛ̃/	peinture /pɛ̃ty:ʁ/ "painting"
eum			oleum /ɔleɔm/ "oleum" (unique case)
eun			jeun /ʒœ̃/ "fasting" (unique case)
im before m	/im/	immense /imɑ̃:s/ "immense"	immaniable /ɛ̃manjabl/ "unmanageable" immettable /ɛ̃mɛtabl/ "unwearable"
im before n	/im/	limnologie /limnolɔʒi/ "limnology"
im at the end of a word	/im/	intérim /ɛ̃teʁim/ "temporary work"
im elsewhere	/ɛ̃/	impossible /ɛ̃pɔsibl/ "impossible"	yohimbine /jɔimbin/ "yohimbine" and related words.
in before h	/in/	inhaler /inale/ "to inhale"
in before n	/in/	innocent /inɔsɑ̃/ "innocent"
in at the end of a word	/ɛ̃/	fin /fɛ̃/ "end"	fedayin /fedajin/ "fedayeen" gin /dʒin/ "gin" khamsin /ʀamsin/ "khamsin" pidgin /pidʒin/ "pidgin" yin /jin/ "yin"
in before g at the end of a word after a consonant	/iŋ/	parking /paʀkiŋ/ "parking lot"
in before g at the end of a word after a vowel	/ɛ̃/	poing /pwɛ̃/ "fist"
in elsewhere	/ɛ̃/	cinq /sɛ̃k/ "five"	badminton /badmintɔn/ "badminton" chintz /ʃints/ "chintz" hindi /indi/ "Hindi" hinterland /intεʀlɑ̃:d/ "hinterland" etc.