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Sri Ramakrishna Paramahamsa

Sri Ramakrishna Paramahamsa
Born February 18, 1836(1836-02-18)
Kamarpukur, West Bengal, India
Died 16 August 1886 (aged 50)
Garden House in Cossipore.

Sri Ramakrishna Paramahamsa (Bangla: রামকৃষ্ণ পরমহংস Ramkrishno Pôromôhongsho) (February 18, 1836 - August 16, 1886), born Gadadhar Chattopadhyay (Bangla: গদাধর চট্টোপাধ্যায় Gôdadhor Chôţţopaddhae) [1] was a Hindu religious teacher and an influential figure in the Bengal Renaissance of the 19th Century. He was considered an accomplished master in the practice of Vaishnava and Shakti bhakti, Vedanta, Tantra, and other spiritual disciples. He was considered an avatar or incarnation of God by many of his disciples, and is considered as such by many of his devotees today.

Contents

[edit] Biography

[edit] Sources

In India, emphasis has historically been given to the teachings of saints; dates and details of their lives have received less attention. In the case of Ramakrishna, however, there are first-hand accounts of the details of his life. This was possible, according to Mahendranath Gupta—himself a devotee—because many of his disciples were well-educated and had a strong desire to present only facts that could be verified from multiple sources.[2]

[edit] Birth and childhood

According to his biographers, Ramakrishna was born in the village of Kamarpukur, in the Hooghly district of West Bengal, into a very poor but pious brahmin family. The young Ramakrishna, known as Gadadhar, was an extremely popular figure in his village. He was considered handsome and had a natural gift for the fine arts. However, he disliked attending school, and was not interested in earning money. As he was growing up, he was barely literate.[3]

[edit] Heterodox religious practices

At Dakshineswar, Ramakrishna engaged in a practice called madhura bhava, in which he imitated the goddess Radha, wore female clothing and jewelry, and imitated female speech and behavior. This practice culminated with a vision of Krishna, in which Krishna's body merged with Ramakrishna's.[3] He said:

I spent many dayus as the handmaid of God. I dressed myself in women's clthoes, put on ornaments, and covered the upper part of my body with a scarf, just like a woman...Otherwise, how could I have kept my wife with me for eight months? Both of us behaved as if we were the handmaids of the Divine Mother. I cannot speak of myself as a man.[3]

For a period, while he was practicing bhakti, he was supposed to have resembled the monkey-god Hanuman. He lived on roots and fruit, and a growth which resembled a tail was supposed to have grown from his spine. Later, Ramakrishna experienced the goddess Sita's body merging with his own.[3] In Hindu mythology, Hanuman is the servant of Ram, and Sita is Ram's consort.

At some point, Ramakrishna visited Nadia, the home of Chaitanya and Nityananda, the 15th-century founders of Bengali Gaudiya Vaishnava bhakti. He had an intense vision of two young boys merging into his body.[3]

[edit] Totapuri and Vedanta

Ramakrishna was initiated in Advaita Vedanta by a wandering monk named Totapuri, in the city of Dakshineswar. Totapuri was "a teacher of masculine strength, a sterner mien, a gnarled physique, and a virile voice". Ramakrishna would soon affectionately address the monk as Nangta or Langta, the "Naked One". Nikhilananda interjects that this is because as a renunciate, Nangta did not wear any clothing.[4]

I [Ramakrishna] said to Totapuri in despair: "It's no good. I will never be able to lift my spirit to the unconditioned state and find myself face to face with the Atman." He [Totapuri] replied severely: "What do you mean you can't? You must!" Looking about him, he found a shard of glass. He took it and stuck the point between my eyes saying: "Concentrate your mind on that point." [...] The last barrier vanished and my spirit immediately precipitated itself beyond the plane of the conditioned. I lost myself in samadhi.[5]

After the departure of Totapuri, Ramakrishna reportedly remained for six months in a state of absolute contemplation:

For six months in a stretch, I [Ramakrishna] remained in that state from which ordinary men can never return; generally the body falls off, after three weeks, like a mere leaf. I was not conscious of day or night. Flies would enter my mouth and nostrils as they do a dead's body, but I did not feel them. My hair became matted with dust.[6]

[edit] Marriage

Rumors spread to Kamarpukur that Ramakrishna had gone mad as a result of his over-taxing spiritual exercises at Dakshineswar. Alarmed, neighbors advised Ramakrishna’s mother that he be persuaded to marry, so that he might be more conscious of his responsibilities to the family. Far from objecting to the marriage, he, in fact, mentioned Jayrambati, three miles to the north-west of Kamarpukur, as being the village where the bride could be found at the house of one Ramchandra Mukherjee. The five-year-old bride, Sarada, was found and the marriage was duly solemnised in 1859.[7] Ramakrishna was 23 at this point, but the age difference was typical for 19th century rural Bengal. Ramakrishna left Sarada in December 1860 and did not return until May 1867.[7]

[edit] Yogeshwari and Tantra

In 1861, a female guru named Yogeshwari appeared at Dakshineshwar. Reportedly, she taught Ramakrishna 64 Tantric sadhanas. She tried to teach him sodashi-puja — ritualized copulation with a young girl — but Ramakrishna fainted.[7]

Sarada, now a young woman, heard rumors of Ramakrishna's bizarre practices and came to Dakshineshwar to protect him from Yogeshwari. They began to relate to each other as husband and wife, but did not consummate their marriage, due to Ramakrishna's severe asceticism.[7]

[edit] Islam and Christianity

In 1866, Govinda Roy, a Hindu guru who practiced Sufism, initiated Ramakrishna into Islam. According to Christopher Isherwood, Ramakrishna said:

I devoutly repeated the name of Allah, wore a cloth like the Arab Moslems, said their prayer five time daily, and felt disinclined even to see images of the Hindu gods and goddesses, much less worship them—for the Hindu way of thinking had disappeared altogether from my mind.

His Muslim practices culminated in Ramakrishna experiencing the prophet Muhammad merging with his body.[3]

Years later, as he contemplated an image of the Madonna and Christ child at a devotee's house, he began a phase of Christian spiritual practice. This phase culminated in a vision of the merging of Ramakrishna's body with that of Christ.[3]

[edit] Later life

By the 1870s, Ramakrishna had established a reputation as a mystic and had attracted a large number of male devotees from the emerging urban Bengali bourgeoisie class, most of whom including Narendranath Dutta, had been educated at English schools. He came to be known among his devotees as Sri Ramakrishna Paramahansa. The name Ramakrishna is said to have been given him by Mathur Babu, the son-in-law of Rani Rasmani.[8]

After fifteen years of teaching, in April 1885 the first symptoms of throat cancer appeared and in the beginning of September 1885 he was moved to Shyampukur. But the illness showed signs of aggravation and he was moved to a large garden house at Cossipore on December 11, 1885 on the advice of Dr. Sarkar, who was treating him. On August 15, 1886 his health deteriorated, and at 01:02 a.m. on the 16th he attained mahasamadhi. At noon, Dr. Sarkar pronounced that life had departed not more than half an hour before.[9] He left behind a devoted band of 16 young disciples headed by Swami Vivekananda.

[edit] Teachings

[edit] God-realisation

Ramakrishna (1881, Calcutta)
Ramakrishna (1881, Calcutta)

The key concepts in Ramakrishna’s teachings were the oneness of existence; the divinity of all living beings; and the unity of God and the harmony of religions.

Ramakrishna emphasised that God-realisation is the supreme goal of all living beings.[10]

[edit] Kamini-kanchan

Ramakrishna taught that that the primal bondage in human life is to kaminikanchan, or "women and gold". Devotees insist that this phrase warns against lust and greed, but religion scholars and historians have tended to take it more literally. He seems to have overcome sexual desires by "becoming female":

A man can change his nature by imitating another's character. By transposing onto yourself the attributes of a woman, you gradually destroy lust and the other sensual drives. You begin to behave like a women. I have noticed that men who play female parts in the theater speak like women or brush their teeth like women while bathing.[3]

[edit] Harmony of religions

Harmony of religions is one of Ramakrishna's most important teachings. He recognised differences among religions but realised that in spite of these differences, all religions lead to the same ultimate goal, and hence they are all valid and true. Regarding this, the distinguished British historian Arnold J. Toynbee has written: “… Mahatma Gandhi’s principle of non-violence and Sri Ramakrishna’s testimony to the harmony of religions: here we have the attitude and the spirit that can make it possible for the human race to grow together into a single family – and in the Atomic Age, this is the only alternative to destroying ourselves.” [11]

[edit] Other teachings

Ramakrishna, though not formally trained as a philosopher, had an intuitive grasp of complex philosophical concepts.[12] According to him brahmanda, the visible universe and many other universes, are mere bubbles emerging out of Brahman, the supreme ocean of intelligence [13].

Like Adi Sankara had done more than a thousand years earlier, Ramakrishna Paramahamsa revitalised Hinduism which had been fraught with excessive ritualism and superstition in the Nineteenth century and helped it become better-equipped to respond to challenges from Islam, Christianity and the dawn of the modern era[14].

[edit] Ramakrishna’s impact

[edit] On Hinduism

His career was an important part of the renaissance that Bengal, and later India, experienced in the 19th century. Hinduism faced a huge intellectual challenge in the 19th century, from Westerners and Indians alike. The Hindu practice of murti came under intense pressure specially in Bengal, then the center of British India, and was declared intellectually unsustainable by some intellectuals. Response to this was varied, ranging from the Young Bengal movement that denounced Hinduism and embraced Christianity or atheism, to the Brahmo movement that retained primacy of Hinduism but gave up idol worship, and to the staunch Hindu nationalism of Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay. Ramakrishna’s influence was crucial in this period for a Hindu revival of a more traditional kind, and can be compared to that of Chaitanya's contribution centuries earlier, when Hinduism in Bengal was under similar pressure from the growing power of Islam.[15]

Among his contributions is a strong affirmation of the presence of the divine in an idol.[16][17]

[edit] On Indian Nationalism

Ramakrishna’s impact on the growing Indian nationalism was, if more indirect, nevertheless quite notable. A large number of intellectuals of that age had regular communication with him and respected him, though not all of them necessarily agreed with him on religious matters. Numerous members of the Brahmo Samaj respected him. Though some of them embraced his form of Hinduism, the fact that many others didn't shows that they detected in him a possibility for a strong national identity in the face of a colonial adversary that was intellectually undermining the Indian civilisation. As Amaury de Riencourt states,"The greatest leaders of the early twentieth century, whatever their walk of life -- Rabindranath Tagore, the prince of poets; Aurobindo Ghosh, the greatest mystic-philosopher; Mahatma Gandhi, who eventually shook the Anglo-Indian Empire to destruction -- all acknowledged their over-riding debt to both the Swan and the Eagle, to Ramakrishna who stirred the heart of India, and to Vivekananda who awakened its soul."[18] This is particularly evident in Ramakrishna’s development of the Mother-symbolism and its eventual role in defining the incipient Indian nationalism. [19]

[edit] Vivekananda, Ramakrishna Math and the Ramakrishna Mission

See also: Apostles of Ramakrishna

Vivekananda, Ramakrishna’s most illustrious disciple, is considered by some to be one of his most important legacies. Vivekananda spread the message of Ramakrishna across the world. He also helped introduce Hinduism to the west. He founded two organisations based on the teachings of Ramakrishna. One was Ramakrishna Mission, which is designed to spread the word of Ramakrishna. Vivekananda also designed its emblem. Ramakrishna Math was created as a monastic order based on Ramakrishna’s teachings.

[edit] Legacy

It could be argued that Ramakrishna’s vision of Hinduism and its popularisation in the West, by converts like Christopher Isherwood and admirers like Aldous Huxley and Romain Rolland, have largely coloured Western notions of what Hinduism is.

Many great thinkers of the world have acknowledged Ramakrishna's contribution to humanity. Max Müller, who was inspired by Ramakrishna, said:[20]

Sri Ramakrishna was a living illustration of the truth that Vedanta, when properly realised, can become a practical rule of life... the Vedanta philosophy is the very marrow running through all the bones of Ramakrishna’s doctrine.

Leo Tolstoy saw similarities between his and Ramakrishna's thoughts. He described him as a "remarkable sage".[21] Romain Rolland considered Ramakrishna to be the "consummation of two thousand years of the spiritual life of three hundred million people." He said[22]:

Allowing for differences of country and of time, Ramakrishna is the younger brother of Christ.

Mohandas Gandhi wrote:[23]

Ramakrishna's life enables us to see God face to face. He was a living embodiment of godliness.

Sri Aurobindo considered Ramakrishna to be an incarnation, or avatar, of God on par with Gautama Buddha.[24] He wrote:

When scepticism had reached its height, the time had come for spirituality to assert itself and establish the reality of the world as a manifestation of the spirit, the secret of the confusion created by the senses, the magnificent possibilities of man and the ineffable beatitude of God. This is the work whose consummation Sri Ramakrishna came to begin and all the development of the previous two thousand years and more since Buddha appeared has been a preparation for the harmonisation of spiritual teaching and experience by the Avatar of Dakshineshwar.

Christopher Isherwood also considered Ramakrishna to be an incarnation of God. [25]

Jawaharlal Nehru described Ramakrishna as "one of the great rishis of India, who had come to draw our attention to the higher things of life and of the spirit."[26] Subhas Chandra Bose was also influenced by Ramakrishna. He said:[27]

The effectiveness of Ramakrishna's appeal lay in the fact that he had practised what he preached and that... he had reached the acme of spiritual progress.

[edit] Contemporary reception

{{Unbalanced section|date=March 2008}} {{POV-section|date=March 2008}} In 1991, historian Narasingha Sil wrote Ramakrishna Paramahamsa. A Psychological Profile, an account of Ramakrishna that suggests that Ramakrishna's mystical experiences were pathological and originated from alleged childhood sexual trauma.[28]Other scholars, most notably psychologist Sudhir Kakar, judged Sil's study to be simplistic and misleading.[29] Sil's theory has also been viewed as reductive by William B. Parsons, who has called for an increased empathetic dialogue between the classical/adaptive/transformative schools and the mystical traditions for an enhanced understanding of Ramakrishna's life and experiences.[30]

In 1991, Sudhir Kakar wrote "The Analyst and the Mystic." [31] Gerald James Larson wrote, "Indeed, Sudhir Kakar...indicates that there would be little doubt that from a psychoanalytic point of view Ramakrishna could be diagnosed as a secondary transsexual."[32] Kakar sought a meta-psychological non-pathological explanation that connects Ramakrishna's mystical realization with creativity. Kakar also argues that culturally relative concepts of eroticism and gender have contributed to the Western difficulty in comprehending Ramakrishna.[29]In 2003, Sudhir Kakar wrote a novel, Ecstasy, in which an aspiring sadhu in 20th century India endures sexual molestation as a child, and has a feminine appearance and ambiguous sexuality. According to the author, the characters were modelled on Ramakrishna and Vivekananda.[33]

In 1995, Jeffrey Kripal wrote Kali's Child: The Mystical and the Erotic in the Life and Teachings of Ramakrishna, which he called a psychoanalytic study of Ramakrishna.[34][35] Kali's Child's conclusion is that "Ramakrishna’s mystical experiences...were in actual fact profoundly, provocatively, scandalously erotic."[36] Kali's Child provoked controversy after Narasingha Sil wrote an article in The Statesman accusing Kripal of shoddy scholarship, and described Kali's Child as "plain shit".[37] However, in 1998, Sil suggested that Kali's Child was the best scholarly work on Ramakrishna.[38] In subsequent articles, Kripal's translations, his conclusions, and his authority to apply psychoanalysis to Ramakrishna were questioned by several scholars, including Alan Roland, Huston Smith, and Somnath Bhattacharya.[39][40][41] Other scholars, writing in major academic religion journals, called Kripal's arguments "thorough", "well documented" and "convincing".[42] Kripal responded to the criticisms in journal articles and postings on his website,[43] but stopped participating in the discussion in late 2002.

Attempts by modern authors to psychoanalyze Ramakrishna are questioned by practicing psychoanalyst Alan Roland, who has written extensively about applying Western psychoanalysis to Eastern cultures,[44][45][46][47] and charges that psychoanalysis has been misapplied to Ramakrishna.[48][49] Roland decries the facile decoding of Hindu symbols, such as Kali’s sword and Krishna’s flute, into Western sexual metaphors—thereby reducing Ramakrishna’s spiritual aspiration to the basest psychopathology.[50] The conflation of Ramakrishna’s spiritual ecstasy, or samadhi, with unconscious dissociated states due to repressed homoerotic feelings is not based on common psychoanalytic definitions of these two different motivations, according to Roland.[51] He also writes that it is highly questionable whether Ramakrishna’s spiritual aspirations and experiences involve regression—responding to modern attempts to reduce Ramakrishna’s spiritual states to a subconscious response to an imagined childhood trauma.[52]

In 2006, composer Philip Glass wrote The Passion of Ramakrishna, a choral work. It premiered on September 16, 2006 at the Orange County Performing Arts Center in Costa Mesa, California, performed by Orange County’s Pacific Symphony Orchestra conducted by Carl St. Clair with the Pacific Chorale directed by John Alexander.[53]

[edit] References

  1. ^ Smart, Ninian The World’s Religions (1998) p.409, Cambridge
  2. ^ Gupta, Mahendranath, “Three Classes of Evidences” in Sri Sri Ramakrishna Kathamrita, (Kolkata:Kathamrita Bhavan, 1901,1949- 17th edition), Part I, introductory page
  3. ^ a b c d e f g h Parama Roy, Indian Traffic: Identities in Question in Colonial and Post-Colonial India Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998
  4. ^ Swami Nikhilananda, The Gospel of Sri Ramakrishna (1972), Ramakrishna-Vivekananda Center, New York
  5. ^ Roland, Romain The Life of Ramakrishna (1984), Advaita Ashram
  6. ^ Swami Nikhilananda, Ramakrishna, Prophet of New India, New York, Harper and Brothers, 1942, p. 28.
  7. ^ a b c d Sil, Divine Dowager, p. 42
  8. ^ Life of Sri Ramakrishna, Advaita Ashrama, Ninth Impression, December 1971, p. 44
  9. ^ Last days
  10. ^ Kathamrita, 1/10/6
  11. ^ Contributions of Sri Ramakrishna to World Culture
  12. ^ Hixon, Lex, Great Swan: Meetings with Ramakrishna, (New Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1992, 2002), p. xvi
  13. ^ Gospel of Ramakrishna, vol. 4
  14. ^ Das, Prafulla Kumar, "Samasamayik Banglar adhymatmik jibongothone Sri Ramakrishner probhab", in Biswachetanay Ramakrishna, (Kolkata: Udbodhon Karyaloy, 1987,1997- 6th rep.), pp.299-311
  15. ^ Mukherjee, Jayasree, "Sri Ramakrishna’s Impact on Contemporary Indian Society". Prabuddha Bharata, May 2004 Online article
  16. ^ Swami Saradananda,Sri Sri Ramakrishna Leelaproshongo, (Kolkata:Udbodhon Karyaloy, 1955), Part I, pp.113-125
  17. ^ Gupta, Mahendranath, Sri Sri Ramakrishna Kathamrita, (Kolkata: Kathamrita Bhavan, 1901, 1949 17th edition), Part I, pp. 20-21
  18. ^ de Riencourt, Amaury, The Soul of India, (London: Jonathan Cape, 1961), p.250
  19. ^ Jolly, Margaret,"Motherlands? Some Notes on Women and Nationalism in India and Africa".The Australian Journal of Anthropology,Volume: 5. Issue: 1-2,1994
  20. ^ Vedanta Society of New York
  21. ^ World Thinkers on Ramakrishna-Vivekananda, The Ramakrishna Mission Institute of Culture, pp.15-16
  22. ^ The Life of Ramakrishna, Advaita Ashrama
  23. ^ Life of Sri Ramakrishna, Advaita Ashrama, Foreword
  24. ^ World Thinkers on Ramakrishna-Vivekananda, The Ramakrishna Mission Institute of Culture, p.16
  25. ^ Ramakrishna and His Disciples, Advaita Ashrama, p.2
  26. ^ World Thinkers on Ramakrishna-Vivekananda, The Ramakrishna Mission Institute of Culture, p.28
  27. ^ World Thinkers on Ramakrishna-Vivekananda, The Ramakrishna Mission Institute of Culture, p.29
  28. ^ Sil, Narasingha, Ramakrishna Paramahamsa. A Psychological Profile, (Leiden, Netherlands: Brill, 1991), p.16
  29. ^ a b Kakar, Sudhir, The Analyst and the Mystic, (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991), p.34
  30. ^ Parsons, William B., The Enigma of the Oceanic Feeling: Revisioning the Psychoanalytic Theory of Mysticism, (New York, Oxford University Press, 1999), pp.125-139
  31. ^ In The Indian Psyche, 125-188. 1996 New Delhi: Viking by Penguin. Reprint of 1991 book.
  32. ^ Gerald James Larson (Autumn 1997). "Polymorphic Sexuality, Homoeroticism, and the Study of Religion". Journal of the American Academy of Religion 65 (3): 655-665. London: Oxford University Press. 
  33. ^ "The characters are modelled on Ramakrishna and Vivekananda." The Rediff Interview/Psychoanalyst Sudhir Kakar Date accessed: 1 April 2008
  34. ^ Kripal, Jeffrey J.: Kali's Child
  35. ^ Kripal, Jeffrey J., Kali's Child: The Mystical and the Erotic in the Life and Teachings of Ramakrishna, (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995, 1998)
  36. ^ Jeffrey J. Kripal, Kali's Child: The Mystical and the Erotic in the Life and Teachings of Ramakrishna, p. 2
  37. ^ Sil went even further when "in one Calcutta newspaper, The Statesman, Narasingha Sil recently decried Kripal as a shoddy scholar with a perverse imagination who has thoughtlessly "ransacked" another culture and produced a work which is, in short, "plain shit" (January 31, 1997)..." Urban, Hugh (Apr., 1998). "Kālī's Child: The Mystical and the Erotic in the Life and Teachings of Ramakrishna". The Journal of Religion Vol. 78, No. 2: pp. 318-320. 
  38. ^ Bhattacharyya, Somnath. Kali's Child: Psychological And Hermeneutical Problems. Infinity Foundation. Retrieved on 2008-03-15.
  39. ^ Smith derided Kripal's work as "colonialism updated".Smith, Huston (Spring 2001). "Letters to the Editor". Harvard Divinity Bulletin 30/1: Letters. 
  40. ^ "Freud never had access to non-Western patients, so he never established the validity of his theories in other cultures. This is a point emphasized by Alan Roland, who has researched and published extensively to show that Freudian approaches are not applicable to study Asian cultures." Ramaswamy and De Nicholas, p. 39.
  41. ^ Somnath Bhattacharyya is emeritus professor and former head of the Psychology Department at Calcutta University(Ramaswamy and DeNicholas, p. 152), and a practicing psychotherapist(Ramaswamy and DeNicholas, p. 152) who is fluent in Bengali(Ramaswamy and DeNicholas, p. 152) and familiar with the primary source material used by Kripal(Ramaswamy and DeNicholas, p. 152). In addition to pointing out that Kripal is not qualified in psychoanalysis, he says the textual errors in Kali’s Child are “particularly grave”, and “large scale distortions of source material in an ill attempted effort at establishing a thesis, is certainly not academically acceptable.” Ramaswamy and DeNicholas, p. 162.
  42. ^ Malcolm McLean (Jul - Sep, 1997). untitled review. Journal of the American Oriental Society 117 (3): 571-572. American Oriental Society. “This analysis will be controversial particularly among the followers of Ramakrishna, who have sought over the years to deny, or at least to downplay, the Tantric elements. But Kripal's treatment of it is very thorough, his case is very well documented, and I find his argument convincing.”  Hugh B. Urban (Apr., 1998). untitled review. Journal of Religion 78 (2): 318-320. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. “Kripal's book penetrates the layers of pious obfuscation and reverential distortion surrounding Ramakrishna, to recover the original Bengali texts...which had been mistranslated and censored by later disciples.”  John Stratton Hawley (May 1998). untitled review. History of Religions 37 (4): 401-404. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. “Kripal offers ample proof that Ramakrishna...had a very significantly homosexual side.”  William Radice (1998). untitled review. Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 61 (1): 160-161. London: Cambridge University Press. “"[Ramakrishna's] homosexual leanings and his horror of women as lovers should not be the issue: there was plenty of evidence before the exposure of the guhya katha ["secret talk"].” 
  43. ^ Kali's Child
  44. ^ Roland, Alan. (1996) Cultural Pluralism and Psychoanalysis: The Asian and North American Experience. Routledge. ISBN 0415914787.
  45. ^ Roland, Alan (1998) In Search of Self in India and Japan: Toward a Cross-cultural Psychology. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0691024588.
  46. ^ Roland, A. (1991). Sexuality, the Indian Extended Family, and Hindu Culture. J. Amer. Acad. Psychoanal., 19:595-605.
  47. ^ Roland, A. (1980). Psychoanalytic Perspectives on Personality Development in India. Int. R. Psycho-Anal., 7:73-87.
  48. ^ Roland, Alan (October 1972). "Ramakrishna: Mystical, Erotic, or Both?". Journal of Religion and Health 37: 31-36. 
  49. ^ Roland, Alan. (2007) The Uses (and Misuses) Of Psychoanalysis in South Asian Studies: Mysticism and Child Development. Invading the Sacred: An Analysis of Hinduism Studies in America. Delhi, India: Rupa & Co. ISBN 978-8129111821
  50. ^ Roland, Ramakrishna: Mystical, Erotic, or Both?, p. 33.
  51. ^ Roland, Ramakrishna: Mystical, Erotic, or Both?, p. 33.
  52. ^ Roland, The Uses (and Misuses) Of Psychoanalysis in South Asian Studies: Mysticism and Child Development, published in Invading the Sacred: An Analysis of Hinduism Studies in America. Delhi, India: Rupa & Co. ISBN 978-8129111821, p. 414.
  53. ^ Philipglass.com

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