Friends of the Western Buddhist Order

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The Friends of the Western Buddhist Order (FWBO) is a Buddhist movement founded by Sangharakshita in 1967 in the UK in 1967,[1] and which attempts to incorporate Western philosophy, psychotherapy, and art into its teachings. There are over 100 FWBO groups and centres worldwide. Along with Soka Gakkai and the New Kadampa Tradition, the FWBO is one of the largest Buddhist movements in the UK, with 30 urban centres and retreat centres in Britain. Its second largest following is in India, where it is known as Trailokya Bauddha Mahasangha Sahayaka Gana (TBMSG).[2] The organisation is noted for its radicalism,[3] and has been the object of criticism, due to controversial religious practices, unorthodox teachings, and allegations of sexual abuse and misogyny.[4] The FWBO is considered by some Buddhists to be a cult[5]

Contents

[edit] Emphases of the FWBO

According to the FWBO, there are six characteristics that define the Movement.

  1. The Movement is ecumenical. The FWBO is not identified with any particular strand of Buddhism or Buddhist school, but draws inspiration from the whole array of existing schools. It calls itself ecumenical rather than eclectic because it is founded on the premise that there is an underlying unity to all Buddhist schools.[6]
  2. The act of Going for Refuge is central. Going for Refuge to the Three Jewels (i.e., the Buddha, the Dharma, and the Sangha), is considered to be what makes someone a Buddhist[7]
  3. The movement is unified. FWBO does not have traditional Sangha lineage for monk and nun. FWBO created its own non-monastic ordination for itself, which is granted for both sexes. While the movement regards single-sex activities as vital to spiritual growth, men and women are considered equally able to practice and develop spiritually.[8]
  4. Spiritual friendship. In the FWBO there is a strong emphasis on Going for Refuge to the Sangha. Spiritual friendship is friendship based on shared values, especially the Three Jewels. The FWBO teaches that spending time with friends who share the same ideals supports ethical living and the arisal of the Bodhicitta.[9]
  5. Team based right-livelihood. Working together in teams, in the spirit of generosity and with a focus on ethics, is considered a transformative spiritual practice.[10]
  6. Art. Engagement in and an appreciation of the arts are considered to be a valuable aspect of spiritual practice. The FWBO teaches that a refinement of one's artistic tastes can help refine one's emotional sensitivity and provide a channel for the expression of religious devotion.[11]

[edit] The Western Buddhist Order

The WBO is the authoritative and organisational focal-point of the FWBO.[12] The WBO is a network of friendships between individuals who have made personal commitments to practice the Dharma and to effectively Go for Refuge to the Three Jewels in communion with others.[13] Order members are known as Dharmacharis (masculine) or Dharmacharinis (feminine) and they are ordained, in accord with a ceremony formulated by their founder, on an equal basis, taking the same precepts at ordination. At ordination they are given a religious name in Pali or Sanskrit.[14] While there is an informal hierarchy within the WBO, there are no higher ordinations, but a small number of Order members formally take vows of celibacy and adopt a simpler life style. Contrary to the traditional Buddhist structure of separating lay and monastic members, the WBO combines monastic and lay lifestyles under one ordination,[15] a practice not dissimilar to that which evolved in various Japanese schools of Buddhism down the centuries.[16]

Like followers of the Shingon School of Buddhism, Order members observe a set of ten precepts (ethical training rules).[17] These precepts are different from monastic vows and do not appear in the Vinaya Pitaka, but were formulated on the basis of the dasa-kusala-dhammas (ten wholesome actions), found in several places in the Pāli Canon as well as in several Sanskrit sources;The karma sections of the fundamental meditation texts of all four schools of Tibetan Buddhism also list these acts as basic guidelines for any lay or ordained practitioner intent on observing the law of cause and effect.[18]

Beyond this, a commitment to personal Dharma practice and to remain in communication with other members are the only requirements.[19] Ordination confers no special status, nor any specific responsibilities, although many Order members do choose to take on responsibilities for such things as teaching meditation and Dharma. In 2004 there were around 1,000 members of the Order, in over 20 countries.[20]

[edit] The Wider FWBO Sangha

In the FWBO, as in the orthodox Mahayana and Vajrayana traditions, 'Sangha,' is interpreted as the Buddhist community as a whole. In this instance, this includes friends, Mitras, and Order Members.[citation needed]

Someone who regularly attends FWBO activities is considered to be a 'Friend.' Friends do not have to consider themselves Buddhists and can be of any faith or none. Some people choose, after some time, to participate in an FWBO 'ceremony' and become a 'Mitra.' 'Mitra' is Sanskrit for friend, and in this case denotes people who consider themselves Buddhists, who make an effort to live in accordance with the five ethical precepts, and who feel that the FWBO is the appropriate spiritual community for them, at least for the time being. Those who wish to join the WBO must request ordination in writing. Following this it can sometimes take several years to prepare for ordination. Preparation is an informal process, the focus of which is to deepen one's Going for Refuge.[21]

[edit] Activities and practices associated with the FWBO

FWBO centres teach Buddhism, meditation, yoga and other methods of self-improvement that come from outside of the Buddhist tradition.[22] Recently FWBO activities have begun to include outdoor festivals, online meditation teaching, arts festivals, poetry and writing workshops, tai chi, karate, and pilgrimages to Buddhist holy sites in India. For many years the FWBO charity Karuna Trust has raised money for aid projects in India.[23]

[edit] Meditation

Sangharakshita described meditation as having four phases. The first two are, calming or samatha practices and the last two are insight or vipassana practices. Until ordination, the first two practices are given much more emphasis.[24]

  1. Integration - The main practice at this stage is the Mindfulness of Breathing, which has the effect of "integrating the psyche" - improving mindfulness and concentration and reducing psychological conflict.
  2. Positive Emotion - The second aspect of Samatha is developing positivity - an other-regarding, life-affirming attitude. The Brahmavihara meditations, especially the 'metta bhavana' or cultivation of loving kindness meditations, are the key practices for developing 'positive emotion'.
  3. Spiritual Death - The next stage is to develop insight into the emptiness of the self and reality. Meditations at this stage include considering the elements of which self and world are composed, contemplating impermance, particularly that of the body; contemplating suffering; and contemplating Shunyata. It is considered important to approach these meditation practices from a strong base of integration and positive emotion.
  4. Spiritual Rebirth - the FWBO teaches that with the development of insight, and the death of the limited ego-self, a person is spiritually reborn. Practices which involve the visualization of Buddhas and Bodhisattvas become the main practices used in the FWBO in this phase. At ordination each dharmachari(ni) is given a more advanced visualisation meditation on a particular Buddhist figure.

[edit] Other

Worship or Puja is a devotional practice intended to awaken a desire to liberate all beings from suffering. The most common form of worship practiced in the FWBO is composed of the puja section that forms the beginning of the Bodhicaryavatara of Shantideva.

Retreats provide an opportunity to focus on religious practice more intensely, in a residential context outside of a retreatant's everyday life.[25] FWBO retreats can be broadly categorized into meditation retreats, study retreats, and solitary retreats. Retreat lengths vary from short weekend retreats to one or two weeks.

Right livelihood businesses generate funds for the movement as well as providing environments for spiritual growth. Emphasis is placed on teamwork with other practitioners and contribution to the welfare of others, e.g. by funding social projects and considering ethical matters such as fair trade. The largest FWBO business is the Evolution chain of fairtrade gift shops.[26]

Most cities with an FWBO centre also have a residential community of practising Buddhists. The first of these communities was formed after a retreat where several of the participants decided they wanted to try to continue retreat-style living. Since the most stable communities tended to be single sex, this has become the main paradigm for FWBO communities ever since.[27] Support from fellow practitioners in a community is seen to be effective in helping its members make spiritual progress.[28]

[edit] The FWBO after Sangharakshita

In 1995 Sangharakshita retired from active leadership of the FWBO and WBO.[29] In 1997 the responsibility for ordination and spiritual leadership was handed over to the preceptor's college, based in Birmingham.[30] Since then Sangharakshita's health has declined. In 2000 the first Chair of the preceptor's council was chosen by Sangharakshita. In future this position will be elected by the WBO to five-year terms.[31]

In 2003 the Public Preceptors, responding to feedback from the Order and the movement, decided to move away from having a formal relationship to the Order and movement, and to concentrate on the ordination of the new members of the Order, teaching and Dharma practice. At the same time the number of preceptors has expanded to introduce flexibility.

The need for change was also fuelled by allegations of sexual misconduct by Sangharakshita and other senior Order members, as well as allegations of the existence of cultic behaviour surrounding certain Order members and of a climate of misogyny and manipulation. Some guilty Order members resigned, while a number of Order members resigned in protest. The problems of sexuality, power and misogyny, which had their peak in the late 1970s and early 1980s, have caused great distress to victims, and the public revelations surrounding them continue to bring discomfort and humiliation to FWBO members.[32]

Nevertheless, the accusations brought a need to face difficult issues squarely within the movement.[33] Most Order members have stayed on to take advantage of a more relaxed and flexible atmosphere, in which they feel free to question and update the way things have been done, and even to question Sangharakshita. A growing number of friends, mitras and Order members are receiving teachings from outside the FWBO, including non-Buddhist traditions such as Sufism.[34]

The WBO and FWBO are exploring ways to organise themselves and develop their work in a more decentralised way. Debates continue about how to ensure both coherence and flexibility, as well as spiritual depth in the order.

[edit] Criticism of the FWBO

The most public criticism of the FWBO is manifest in the FWBO files, originally circulated in 1998 and available online, and an article published in the Guardian in 1997 called, 'The Dark Side of Enlightenment.'[35] This has since been met with a response from the FWBO. A counter response appears at fwbo-files.com. Most academics who write about the FWBO also examine it critically. On the other hand, the Network of Buddhist Organisations (NBO), says The FWBO Files set out to blacken the reputation of one of our members, and much of the material contained in them has been regurgitated in the current attack on the NBO. The FWBO Files have been thoroughly discredited, although they are still in circulation. *Network of Buddhist Organisations

[edit] Doctrinal criticism

While some commentators consider the FWBO to be a genuine Buddhist movement,[36] others suggest it may be a pseudo-Buddhist one. The article published in the British newspaper The Guardian (27 October 1997) reported that: 'Ken Jones, lecturer and author of several books on Buddhism, believes that the FWBO is ... "a deviant form of Buddhism." '

Although Sangharakshita received initiations from Buddhist teachers while in India, he never worked closely enough with any teacher to be considered his Dharma-heir.[37] This means that from the perspective of traditional Buddhism, the FWBO has no legitimate spiritual lineage.[citation needed] Implicitly therefore, the checks and balances provided by the institution of lineage have not been present in the founding and growth of the FWBO.[improper synthesis?]

The critical stance of the FWBO towards orthodox Asian schools has also contributed to its unpopularity. In describing itself as being a movement 'fully appropriate to Western society,' the implication is that existing Buddhist traditions that are spreading in the West are not. Sangharakshita criticised meditation centres that teach Vipassana meditation to people who don't have extensive experience of Samatha meditation, for example. The result is that the FWBO criticizes both orthodoxy and liberalism and portrays itself as the perfect balance between two extremes.[38]

[edit] Sangharakshita's conduct

Sangharakshita's behaviour violated the rules of the monastic code many times and in a number of ways. He wore the robes of a Buddhist monk at a time when he was not practicing celibacy and engaging in sexual acts with a number of different partners, actions which, as well as infringing his monastic vows could also be perceived as sexual abuse due to his position of power, in posing as a bhikshu. He has admitted to having experimented with drugs on two occasions in 1969 and 1970, claiming that since he was so often asked for his opinion on the topic he should be able to speak from experience. The FWBO-files claims that in doing this he was deliberately misleading people for whom the robe was a signifier of a particular lifestyle. This episode led to a number of Indian mitras (friends) denouncing him and rejecting the TBMSG en masse in 1999. A letter signed by the 88 Indian mitras, all from the Mumbai (Bombay) area stated:

"...while claiming to be a properly ordained Buddhist monk, a Bhikshu, you showed no respect for the devout feelings Buddhists associated with the robe by indulging in sexual misconduct, experimenting with drugs and teaching the 'neutrality' of sexual activities. In our opinion, this final act of yours was nothing more than an attempt to cover up your misbehaviour as a monk while still holding onto the power and prestige which the yellow robe along with the epithets Bhikshu and Mahasthavir held in the eyes of the common people. Thus you have cheated us." [15]

[edit] Sexuality

Although the FWBO has never portrayed it as official doctrine, it is claimed that there has been 'active promotion of homosexuality' by some [male] Order members.[39].

Sangharakshita asserted that the [heterosexual] couple and the nuclear family are sources of neurosis.

'A couple consists, in fact, of two half-people, each of whom unconsciously invests part of his or her total being in the other: each is dependent on the other for the kind of psychological security that can be found, ultimately, only within oneself.'

(Sangharakshita, 1986, Alternative Traditions).

Some allege that this subsequently led to more controversial ideas. The view arose among some Order members that all forms of sexuality are conditioned, and that since same-sex communities were a source of harmony, homosexuality wouldn't be neurotic in the same way as heterosexuality. Then came the view that homoerotic sexual interest could aid the development of Kalyana Mitrata.[40]

'Sexual interest on the part of a male Order member for a male mitra [novice] can create a connection which may allow kalyana mitrata [spiritual friendship] to develop. Some, of course, are predisposed to this attraction, others have deliberately chosen to change their sexual preferences in order to use sex as a medium of kalyana mitrata - and to stay clear of the dangers of male-female relationships without giving up sex.' (Subhuti, pub. Shabda, September 1986, p125).

In some cases, these ideas were used in sexual manipulation by Order members. The leader of the Croydon Buddhist Centre, for instance, coerced FWBO members into having sex with him.[41] In the Guardian article Subhuti admitted that the behaviour at Croydon bore all the characteristics of a cult and left at least 30 people badly damaged psychologically. At least one 'victim' has since left the FWBO, and the leader has been expelled. The men's community Padmaloka also developed a culture of sexual exploitation and consequently disbanded.[42] While sexual manipulation was to some degree widespread and appears from Shabda to have occurred in a number of Centres, Croydon and Padmaloka are often cited as particularly horrific examples.[citation needed]. The veracity of the claim that Padmaloka has been disbanded is uncertain, as it still exits as a retreat centre with a resident community.

In March 2003 an order member called Yashomitra wrote a personal account of his sexual relationship with Sangharakshita and published this in Shabda, the internal newsletter of Western Buddhist Order. Yashomitra's article can be found at http://www.fwbo-files.com/yashomitra.htm. In the article, he described how he was manipulated in having sex with Sangharakshita, and implied that dozens of men had suffered in the same way. He went on to state that "[t]he FWBO did seek to undermine heterosexual relationships and family life. It did teach that homosexuality was superior to heterosexuality. Members were 'converted' to homosexuality through coercive psychological means. Coercion of any sort was not anathema within the FWBO." Yashomitra resigned from the order shortly after the publication of the article.

In a letter to The Times(March 9, 2002) one ex-member who suffered abuse at the hands of an FWBO (WBO?) senior stated it had: 'taken four years of psychotherapy to heal the damage done to me' as a result of his experiences while living at an FWBO centre.

Rev. Daishin Morgan, of Throssel Hole Priory in Northumberland, UK speaking on BBC East's 'Going for Refuge' TV programme (part of their 'Matter of Fact' series), broadcast on 12 November 1992, made the following comment on Subhuti's above statement:

'To me this is totally contrary to the Buddhist precepts, it's totally contrary to the Buddhist scriptures, and it's absolutely contrary to any sort of good practice. It to me is a form of manipulation.'

[edit] Misogyny and anti-family

Sangharakshita has made statements that imply that men are more spiritually advanced than women.[43] Some critics of the organisation claim a culture of misogyny developed in the FWBO in the 1980s and that this was fed by single-sex activities, which bred ignorance of women and a sense of superiority among men.[44]. There is no mention of an equivalent unhealthy attitudes developing amongst female participants in FWBO / WBO by these critics. Senior order member Subhuti explicitly wrote in his book, 'Women, men and angels,' that to be reborn as a woman was to be less spiritually able than to be reborn as a man.[45].

[edit] Power

The FWBO operates under a 'friendly hierarchy,'[46] which can be dangerous when combined with enthusiasm for the teachings practiced.[47] The Guardian (27 October 1997) reported that:

' ... Stephen Batchelor, a prominent Buddhist commentator and author of Buddhism without Beliefs ... says: "They [the FWBO] operate as a self-enclosed system and their writings have the predictability of those who believe they have all the answers. They are structured in a rigid hierarchy and do not seem to question the teachings of their leader. As with many new religious movements, their enthusiasm and unconventional convictions have the potential to lead to problems associated with 'cults' ..." '

Each FWBO centre is autonomous, and not subject to checks and balances by any central headquarters. This has resulted in some centres exhibiting cult behaviour. Yet it is at odds with Batchelor's assertion of a rigid hierarchy. Senior order member Ananda commented,

'People who had been ordained by Sangharakshita tended to develop their own little castles of which they were the unchallenged masters.'[48]

Croydon Buddhist Centre, often cited as a particularly bad case of this, developed an authoritarian atmosphere under the leadership of a charismatic Order member. Writer D.V. Barrett calls this combination of authoritarianism and charisma, 'potent and dangerous.'[49] The problems surrounding sexuality and misogyny are closely linked to an authoritarian atmosphere and charismatic teachers, who were able to disseminate harmful teachings and practices.

Barrett also comments that while cult cells are a common problem in the early decades of a New Religious Movement, this problem does not usually develop while the founder is still alive, as it did with the FWBO.[50]

[edit] Parliamentary Questions

In July and October 2007 questions were raised in the British Parliament regarding complaints by members of the public about the alleged cultish behaviour of the FWBO, as well as Soka Gakkai International and the New Kadampa Tradition. An investigation was launched to decide whether it was still appropriate to award grants to the FWBO from the Faith Communities Capacity Building Fund. The investigation reported that in the cases of all three organisations under investigation, "The criteria was satisfied," and funds were awarded.[51] see *Network of Buddhist Organisations

[edit] References

  1. ^ Barrett, D V (2001), The New Believers: Sects, 'Cults' and Alternative Religions, p. 307, ISBN 0-304-355925 
  2. ^ Partridge, Christopher (2004), Encyclopedia of New Religions, p. 193, ISBN 0-7459-5073-6 
  3. ^ Rawlinson, A (1997), The Book of Enlightened Masters, p. 501, ISBN 0-8126-9310-8 
  4. ^ Coleman, James William (2001), The New Buddhism: The Western Transformation of an Ancient Tradition, p. 163, 171 and 144 
  5. ^ Crook, John, Dangers in Devotion:cultic behaviour against the organisation. PQs 147208&9, 152364, 152368, 156701, 157746 & 7. A further PQ (45434) was raised in 1998 http://www.publications.parliament.uk/cgi-bin/semaphoreserver?DB=semukparl&FILE=search 
  6. ^ Barrett, D V (2001), The New Believers: Sects, 'Cults' and Alternative Religions, p. 308, ISBN 0-304-355925 
  7. ^ Partridge, Christopher (2004), Encyclopedia of New Religions, p. 194, ISBN 0-7459-5073-6 
  8. ^ Barrett, D V (2001), The New Believers: Sects, 'Cults' and Alternative Religions, p. 309, ISBN 0-304-355925 
  9. ^ Coleman, James William (2001), The New Buddhism: The Western Transformation of an Ancient Tradition, p. 117, ISBN 0-19-515241-7 
  10. ^ Baumann, Martin (1998), Working in the Right Spirit: The Application of Buddhist Right Livelihood in the Friends of the Western Buddhist Order, vol. 5, ISSN 1076-9005 
  11. ^ Clarke, Peter (2005), Encyclopedia of New Religious Movements, p. 197, ISBN 0-415-26707-2 
  12. ^ Clarke, Peter (2005), Encyclopedia of New Religious Movements, p. 197, ISBN 0-415-26707-2 
  13. ^ Partridge, Christopher (2004), Encyclopedia of New Religions, p. 194, ISBN 0-7459-5073-6 
  14. ^ Clarke, Peter (2005), Encyclopedia of New Religious Movements, p. 198, ISBN 0-415-26707-2 
  15. ^ Partridge, Christopher (2004), Encyclopedia of New Religions, p. 194, ISBN 0-7459-5073-6 
  16. ^ Neither Monk nor Layman: Clerical Marriage in Modern Japanese Buddhism Richard Jaffe. Published by Princeton University Press and copyrighted, © 2002, by Princeton University Press ISBN-10: 069107495X
  17. ^ Coleman, James William (2001), The New Buddhism: The Western Transformation of an Ancient Tradition, p. 117, ISBN 0-19-515241-7 
  18. ^ Pali sources: the Majjhima Nikāya,(MN 41:8-14). (See also: DN 114, MN.114,AN vol. V inter alia).Sanskrit sources:the Mahāvastu, the Vimalakīrti Nideśa, and the Suvarnaprabhāṣa SūtraTibetan sources (for example): Tzong Kha Pa's 'Great Exposition of the Stages of the Path; Gampopa's 'Jewel Ornament of Liberation; Ngorchen Konchog Lhundrub's 'The Beautiful Ornament of the Triple Vision'; Paltrul Rinpoche's 'The Words of my Perfect Teacher'.
  19. ^ Coleman, James William (2001), The New Buddhism: The Western Transformation of an Ancient Tradition, p. 117, ISBN 0-19-515241-7 
  20. ^ Partridge, Christopher (2004), Encyclopedia of New Religions, p. 193, ISBN 0-7459-5073-6 
  21. ^ Coleman, James William (2001), The New Buddhism: The Western Transformation of an Ancient Tradition, p. 116, ISBN 0-19-515241-7 
  22. ^ Clarke, Peter (2005), Encyclopedia of New Religious Movements, p. 197, ISBN 0-415-26707-2 
  23. ^ Baumann, Martin (1998), Working in the Right Spirit: The Application of Buddhist Right Livelihood in the Friends of the Western Buddhist Order, vol. 5, ISSN 1076-9005 
  24. ^ Partridge, Christopher (2004), Encyclopedia of New Religions, p. 194, ISBN 0-7459-5073-6 
  25. ^ Barrett, D V (2001), The New Believers: Sects, 'Cults' and Alternative Religions, p. 308, ISBN 0-304-355925 
  26. ^ Baumann, Martin (1998), Working in the Right Spirit: The Application of Buddhist Right Livelihood in the Friends of the Western Buddhist Order, vol. 5, ISSN 1076-9005 
  27. ^ Rawlinson, A (1997), The Book of Enlightened Masters, p. 506, ISBN 0-8126-9310-8 
  28. ^ Coleman, James William (2001), The New Buddhism: The Western Transformation of an Ancient Tradition, p. 117, ISBN 0-19-515241-7 
  29. ^ Barrett, D V (2001), The New Believers: Sects, 'Cults' and Alternative Religions, p. 307, ISBN 0-304-355925 
  30. ^ Clarke, Peter (2005), Encyclopedia of New Religious Movements, p. 198, ISBN 0-415-26707-2 
  31. ^ Clarke, Peter (2005), Encyclopedia of New Religious Movements, p. 198, ISBN 0-415-26707-2 
  32. ^ Barrett, D V (2001), The New Believers: Sects, 'Cults' and Alternative Religions, p. 309-310, ISBN 0-304-355925 
  33. ^ Barrett, D V (2001), The New Believers: Sects, 'Cults' and Alternative Religions, p. 310, ISBN 0-304-355925 
  34. ^ Coleman, James William (2001), The New Buddhism: The Western Transformation of an Ancient Tradition, p. 81, ISBN 0-19-515241-7 
  35. ^ Barrett, D V (2001), The New Believers: Sects, 'Cults' and Alternative Religions, p. 309, ISBN 0-304-355925 
  36. ^ For example, James William Coleman and D V Barrett write about the FWBO as though it were a Buddhist movement
  37. ^ Coleman, James William (2001), The New Buddhism: The Western Transformation of an Ancient Tradition, p. 81, ISBN 0-19-515241-7 
  38. '^ Bell, Sandra (1997), Review of, 'Extending the Hand of Friendship, vol. 4, ISSN 1076-9005 
  39. ^ Coleman, James William (2001), The New Buddhism: The Western Transformation of an Ancient Tradition, p. 163, ISBN 0-19-515241-7 
  40. ^ Rawlinson, A (1997), The Book of Enlightened Masters, p. 506, ISBN 0-8126-9310-8 
  41. ^ The Guardian article on the FWBO
  42. ^ Barrett, D V (2001), The New Believers: Sects, 'Cults' and Alternative Religions, p. 309, ISBN 0-304-355925 
  43. ^ Coleman, James William (2001), The New Buddhism: The Western Transformation of an Ancient Tradition, p. 144, ISBN 0-19-515241-7 
  44. ^ Barrett, D V (2001), The New Believers: Sects, 'Cults' and Alternative Religions, p. 309, ISBN 0-304-355925 
  45. ^ Coleman, James William (2001), The New Buddhism: The Western Transformation of an Ancient Tradition, p. 144, ISBN 0-19-515241-7 
  46. ^ Rawlinson, A (1997), The Book of Enlightened Masters, p. 503, ISBN 0-8126-9310-8 
  47. ^ Barrett, D V (2001), The New Believers: Sects, 'Cults' and Alternative Religions, p. 309, ISBN 0-304-355925 
  48. ^ Barrett, D V (2001), The New Believers: Sects, 'Cults' and Alternative Religions, p. 309, ISBN 0-304-355925 
  49. ^ Barrett, D V (2001), The New Believers: Sects, 'Cults' and Alternative Religions, p. 309, ISBN 0-304-355925 
  50. ^ Barrett, D V (2001), The New Believers: Sects, 'Cults' and Alternative Religions, p. 309, ISBN 0-304-355925 
  51. ^ House of Commons Hansard Written Answers for 16 July 2007 (pt 0016)

In July and October 2007 questions were raised in the British Parliament regarding complaints by a member of the public about the alleged cultish behaviour of the FWBO, as well as Soka Gakkai International and the New Kadampa Tradition. An investigation was launched to decide whether it was still appropriate to award grants to the FWBO from the Faith Communities Capacity Building Fund. The investigation reported that in the cases of all three organisations under investigation, "The criteria was satisfied," and funds were awarded.[56] To date, further Parliamentary Questions regarding 'cultish behaviour' in those organisations remain unanswered.[57].

[edit] External links

[edit] FWBO sites

[edit] Outside views of the FWBO

[edit] Critical views of the FWBO

  • ex-FWBO - Part of ex-cult Resource Centre.
  • FWBO Files [1]

Both the above sites provide information critical of the FWBO, and duplicate each other to some extent, though both sites also provide information not available on the other site.