Feminist movement

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The feminist movement (also known as the Women's Movement or Women's Liberation) is a series of campaigns on issues such as reproductive rights (including abortion), domestic violence, maternity leave, equal pay, sexual harassment, and sexual violence. The goals of the movement vary from country to country, e.g. opposition to female genital cutting in Sudan, or to the glass ceiling in Western countries.

Contents

[edit] Achievements

The feminist movement in Western society, including women's suffrage; broad employment for women at more equitable wages ("equal pay for equal work"); the right to initiate divorce proceedings and "no fault" divorce; and the right of women to make individual decision regarding pregnancy, including obtaining contraceptives and safe abortions; and many others. As Western society has become increasingly accepting of feminist principles, some of these ideas are no longer seen as specifically feminist. Some beliefs that were radical for their time, such as equal pay for equal effort and time, are now mainstream political thought. Almost no one in Western societies today questions the right of women to vote, choose their own marital partner if any, or to own land, concepts that seemed quite strange only 100 years ago.


Feminists are often proponents of using non-sexist language, using "Ms." to refer to both married and unmarried women, for example, or the ironic use of the term "herstory" instead of "history". Feminists are also often proponents of using gender-inclusive language, such as "humanity" instead of "mankind", or "he or she" in place of "he" where the gender is unknown. This can be seen as a move to change language which has been viewed by some feminists as imbued with sexism - providing for example the case in the English language the word for the general pronoun is "he" or "his" (The child should have his paper and pencils), which is the same as the masculine pronoun (The boy and his truck). These feminists use theory to purport that language then directly affects perception of reality (compare Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis). However, to take a post-colonial analysis of this point, many languages other than English may not have such a gendered pronoun instance and thus changing language may not be as important to some feminists as others. Yet, English is becoming more and more universal, and the issue of language may be seen to be of growing importance.

[edit] Relationships

The feminist movement has certainly affected the nature of heterosexual relationships in Western and other societies. While these effects have generally been seen as positive,[citation needed] some[who?] have argued that these changes have had a negative effect on traditional morals.

As a consequence of these changes, women and men have had to adapt to relatively new situations, sometimes causing confusions about role and identity. Women frequently have new opportunities, but some have suffered from the demands of trying to live up to the so-called "superwoman" identity, and have struggled to "have it all," i.e. manage to happily balance a career and family. Many socialist feminists blame this on the lack of state-provided childcare facilities[citation needed], with the onus of childcare continuing to rest solely on women. Society has however started to recognize male responsibilities in assisting in managing family matters, as can be seen in the Nordic countries like Sweden where instead of maternity or paternity leave there is a set amount of parental leave, which can be used by either parent. The Swedish system allows families to decide for themselves the best split of childcare responsibilities; in countries such as the UK, where the majority of the leave must be taken by the mother, the state encourages women to take a greater share in childcare.[citation needed]

There have been changes also in attitudes towards sexual morality and behavior with the onset of second wave feminism and "the Pill": women are then more in control of their bodies, and are able to experience sex with more freedom than was previously socially accepted for them. This sexual revolution that women were then able to experience was seen as positive (especially by sex-positive feminists) as it enabled women and men to experience sex in a free and equal manner. However, some feminists[who?] felt that the results of the sexual revolution only was beneficial to men. Whether marriage is an institution that oppresses women and men, or not, has generated discussion.[citation needed] Women who do view marriage as oppressive sometimes opt for cohabitation or live separately from men, fulfilling their sexual needs through casual sex.

[edit] Effect on religion

The feminist movement has had a great effect on many aspects of religion. In liberal branches of Protestant Christianity, women are now ordained as clergy, and in Reform, Conservative and Reconstructionist Judaism, women are now ordained as rabbis and cantors. Within these Christian and Jewish groups, women have gradually become more nearly equal to men by obtaining positions of power; their perspectives are now sought out in developing new statements of belief. These trends, however, have been resisted within Islam and Roman Catholicism. All the mainstream denominations of Islam, (the vast majority of Sunni and Shi'i scholars,) forbid the imamate of women over men in prayer. Yet, the past has not been absent of female scholars of Islam — in all disciplines — (as it would have to profile nearly ten thousand women, or roughly forty volumes). Rather, it is the present that is showing this absence, if indeed it is showing one. [See: Akram, Mohammad Nadwi, (Oxford Centre for Islamic Studies), al-Muhaddithât] Liberal movements within Islam have nonetheless persisted in trying to bring about feminist reforms in Muslim societies. Roman Catholicism has historically excluded women from entering the main Church hierarchy and does not allow women to hold any positions as clergy except as nuns. However, given the shortage of new priests, key roles in Roman Catholic churches are increasingly being filled by lay ministers, 80% of whom are women.[1]

The movement also has had an important role in embracing new forms of religion. Neopagan religions especially tend to emphasise the importance of Goddess spirituality, and question what they regard as traditional religion's hostility to women and the sacred feminine. In particular Dianic Wicca is a religion whose origins lie within radical feminism. Among traditional religions, the feminist movement has led to self examination, with reclaimed positive Christian and Islamic views and ideals of Mary, Islamic views of Fatima Zahra, and especially to the Catholic belief in the Coredemptrix, as counterexamples. However, criticism of these efforts as unable to salvage corrupt church structures and philosophies continues. Some argue that Mary, with her status as mother and virgin, and as traditionally the main role model for women, sets women up to aspire to an impossible ideal and also thus has negative consequences on human sense of identity and sexuality. Others argue that greater emphasis on Mary, as the symbolic embodiment of nurturance and feminine wisdom, is greatly needed to bring Christianity back to Christ's core teachings on love.

While feminism has affected religion, feminism's roots in America can be traced back to religious activism. Women, through involvement in religious social activism movements such as temperance (an attempt to stop domestic violence), abolition, and others, began to draw their collective attention to the conditions and rights of women. [2]

A separate article on God and gender discusses how monotheistic religions reconcile their theologies with contemporary gender issues and how the modern feminist movement has influenced the theology of many religions.

[edit] History

The feminist movement reaches far back before the 18th century, but the seeds of modern feminist movement were planted during the late part of that century. The earliest works on the so-called "woman question" criticised the restrictive role of women, without necessarily claiming that women were disadvantaged or that men were to blame.

[edit] Prior to 1850

Christine de Pizan, a late medieval writer, was possibly the earliest feminist in the western tradition. She is believed to be the first woman to make a living out of writing. Feminist thought began to take a more substantial shape during The Enlightenment with such thinkers as Lady Mary Wortley Montagu and the Marquis de Condorcet championing women's education. The first scientific society for women was founded in Middleberg, a city in the south of the Dutch republic, in 1785. Journals for women which focused on issues like science became popular during this period as well.

During the period of the French Revolution two of the first works that can unambiguously be called feminist appeared. In the Declaration of the Rights of Woman and the Female Citizen (1791), Olympe de Gouges paraphrased the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen (1789), a central document of the Revolution. By modern standards, or in comparison to Olympe de Gouges, her English contemporary Mary Wollstonecraft's comparison of women to the nobility, the elite of society, coddled, fragile, and in danger of intellectual and moral sloth in A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1792) does not sound like a feminist argument, but Wollstonecraft believed that both sexes contributed to this situation and took it for granted that women had considerable power over men.

Harriet Martineau, an English writer and philosopher, renowned in her day as a controversial journalist, political economist, abolitionist and life-long feminist, is known as "the mother of sociology". She highlighted the importance of women's issues as an essential component to the study of society. Although she presumed her readers to be male, Martineau directed their attention to the study of the household and the domestic role of women in culture as necessary for a sociological study. She contributed to classical social theory, and recently has been argued to be on par with the canonical masters. She felt that the contradiction between principles and conduct was a particularly striking feature of American society in her time. No society so formally and self consciously had ever stated its moral principles, as they are stated in the Declaration of Independence and the Constitution. In particular, she was struck with the contradiction between the professed equality of all men with the institution of slavery and the subjugation of women. She recommends paying attention to the status of women as an indicator of a society’s moral status.

[edit] In the 19th century

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The movement is generally said to have begun in the 19th century as people increasingly adopted the perception that women are oppressed in a male-centred society (see patriarchy). The feminist movement is rooted in the West and especially in the reform movement of the 19th century. The organized movement is dated from the first Women's Rights Convention at Seneca Falls, New York, in 1848. John Stuart Mill, with the influence of his wife Harriet Taylor, made a considerable contribution with his work The Subjection of Women, in the mid-19th Century.

Emmeline Pankhurst was one of the founders of the women's suffrage movement and aimed to reveal the institutional sexism in British society, forming the Women's Social and Political Union (WSPU). Often the repeated jailing for forms of activism that broke the law, particularly property destruction, inspired members to go on hunger strikes. As a result of the resultant force-feeding that was the practice, these members became very ill, serving to draw attention to the brutality of the legal system at the time and to further their cause. In an attempt to solve this, the government introduced a bill that became known as the Cat and Mouse Act, which allowed women to be released when they starved themselves to dangerous levels, then to be re-arrested later.

Other notable 19th-century feminists include, Susan B. Anthony, Emma Goldman, Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Dame Ethel Mary Smyth, Margaret Sanger, and Margaret Fuller.

The feminist movement in the Arab world saw Egyptian jurist Qasim Amin, the author of the 1899 pioneering book Women's Liberation (Tahrir al-Mar'a), as the father of the Egyptian feminist movement.[3] In his work, Amin criticized some of the practices prevalent in his society at the time, such as polygamy, the veil, and women's segregation. He condemned them as un-Islamic and contradictory to the true spirit of Islam. His work had an enormous influence on women's political movements throughout the Islamic and Arab world, and is read and cited today. Less known, however, are the women who preceded Amin in their feminist critique of their societies. The women's press in Egypt started voicing such concerns since its very first issues in 1892. After conservatives sharply criticized Amin's work, he again challenged traditional views in a second book, The New Woman (1900).[4]

In China, the 19th century feminist movement found root in local social groups supporting the anti foot binding movement for girls, along with the establishment of the first girls' school in Shanghai (part of the Hundred Days Reforms in 1898). In her book Women in the Chinese Enlightenment (1899), author Wang Zheng outlines the basic rise of feminism in late 19th century China, as well as the feminist movement tied with the May 4th Movement. After that point, feminism and new emphasis for women's social equality were used as core political platforms by the early Republic of China (after 1911), by both the Kuomintang Party and the Communist Party of China.

[edit] In the 20th century

Many countries began to grant women the vote in the early years of the 20th century, especially in the final years of the First World War and the first years after the war. The reasons for this varied, but included a desire to recognize the contributions of women.

The 1920s were an important time for women, who, in addition to gaining the vote also gained legal recognition in many countries. However, in many countries, women lost the jobs they had gained during the war. In fact, women who had held jobs prior to the war were sometimes compelled to give up their jobs to returning soldiers, partly due to a conservative backlash, and partially through societal pressure to reward the soldiers. Many women continued to work in blue collar jobs, on farms, and traditionally female occupations. Women did make strides in some fields such as nursing. In Nigeria, the Igbo Women's War of 1929 saw women demanding a greater role in local politics.

In both World Wars, manpower shortages brought women into traditionally male occupations, ranging from munitions manufacturing and mechanical work to a female baseball league. By demonstrating that women could do "men's work", and highlighting society's dependence on their labour, this shift encouraged women to strive for equality. In World War II, the popular icon Rosie the Riveter became a symbol for a generation of working women.

The rise of socialism and communism advanced the rights of women to economic parity with men in some countries. Women were often encouraged to take their place as equals in these societies, although they rarely enjoyed the same level of political power as men, and still often faced very different social expectations.

In some areas, regimes actively discouraged the feminist movement and women's liberation. In Nazi Germany, a very hierarchical society was idealized where women maintained a position largely subordinate to men. Women's activism was very difficult there, and in other societies that deliberately set out to restrict women's, and men's, gender roles, such as Italy, and much later Afghanistan.

Early feminists are often called the first wave feminists, and feminists after about 1960 are called the second wave feminists. Second wave feminists were concerned with gaining full social and economic equality, having already gained almost full legal equality in many western nations. One of the main fields of interest to these women was in gaining the right to contraception and birth control, which were almost universally restricted until the 1960s. With the development of the first birth control pill feminists hoped to make it as available as possible. Many hoped that this would free women from the perceived burden of mothering children they did not want; they felt that control of reproduction was necessary for full economic independence from men. Access to abortion was also widely demanded, but this was much more difficult to secure because of the deep societal divisions that exists over the issue. To this day, abortion remains controversial in many parts of the world.

Many feminists also fought to change perceptions of female sexual behaviour. Since it was often considered more acceptable for men to have multiple sexual partners, many feminists encouraged women into "sexual liberation" and having sex for pleasure with multiple partners. The extent to which most women in fact changed their behaviour, first of all because many women had already slept with multiple partners, and secondly because most women still remained in mainly monogamous relationships, is debatable. However, it seems clear that women becoming sexually active since the 1980s are relatively more sexually active than previous generations. Moreover, much of the taboo of sexuality evaporated within Western societies as women in monogamous and open relationships asserted their right to enjoy and not regret or be shamed by sexuality. (See: Sexual revolution)

These developments in sexual behavior have not gone without criticism by some feminists. They see the sexual revolution primarily as a tool used by men to gain easy access to sex without the obligations entailed by marriage and traditional social norms. They see the relaxation of social attitudes towards sex in general, and the increased availability of pornography without stigma, as leading towards greater sexual objectification of women by men. Catharine MacKinnon and Andrea Dworkin gained notoriety in the 1980s by attempting to classify pornography as a violation of women's civil rights.

In the 1990s, various strands of feminism that emphasized what they perceived as failures of second-wave feminism were given the name third-wave feminism. Third-wave feminists often claim that second-wave feminism form an essentialist definition of femininity that assumes a universal female identity and experience and so tends to exclude poor women, women of color, and gay women. Third wave feminism is thus made up of a number of diverse elements, each emphasizing the different ways in which feminism might apply to particular groups; these include womanism, queer theory, and postmodern feminism.

[edit] Recent activities

Feminists continue fighting conditions which they perceive as oppressive to women. Feminists observe that in more or less all areas of the world, women still earn less than men on average, and hold less political and economic power. It is believed that women's lesser earning power is due to being paid less than men for equivalent work on a significant scale. Feminists believe that women are often the subject of intense social pressure to conform to relatively traditional gender expectations.

The most high profile work is done in the field of pay-equity, reproductive rights, and encouraging women to become engaged in politics, both as candidates and as voters. In some areas feminists also fight for legislation guaranteeing equitable divorce laws and protections against rape and sexual harassment. Radical feminism was a significant development in second wave feminism, viewing women's oppression as a fundamental element in human society and seeks to challenge that standard by broadly inverting perceived gender roles. Socialist feminism was also an important part of the movement. Their perspective pointed toward capitalism as the source of both women's oppression and racism, homophobia, labor exploitation, and other divisions.

In the Arab and Islamic world, the feminist movement has faced very different challenges. In Morocco and Iran, for example, it is the application of Islamic personal status laws that are the target of feminist activity. According to Islamic law, for example, a woman who remarries may lose custody over her children; divorce is an unqualified male privilege; in certain countries polygamy is still legal. While not attacking Islamic law itself, these women and men in different Islamic countries offer modern, feminist, egalitarian readings of religious texts. In Egypt feminist gynecologist Nawal al-Sa'dawi centers her critique on the still-prevalent custom of female genital mutilation. Feminist groups in other African countries have targeted the practice as well.

Late twentieth century feminists encountered a significant backlash against perceived zealotry on their part. This backlash may be due to the visibility of some radical feminist activism that has been perceived by some as representing the feminist movement as a whole. Many women, and some men, have become reluctant to be identified as feminists for this reason. Outside of the West, the feminist movement is often associated with Western colonialism and Western cultural influence, and is therefore often delegitimized. Feminist groups therefore often prefer to refer to themselves as "women's organizations" and refrain from labeling themselves feminists.[citation needed]

Recently, feminist academics have begun to promote the notion that men must play a part in promoting gender equality amongst their peers, within their families and in the institutions they work. For example, Michael Kimmel[5] has lectured extensively on the ways in which gender equality benefits men, and Gary Barker[6] has developed programs oriented toward altering men's attitudes about sex and violence.[7]

[edit] Notable historical feminists

Main article: List of feminists
Main article: List of notable feminist literature

[edit] References

  1. ^ Dallas Morning News | News for Dallas, Texas | Religion | The Dallas Morning News
  2. ^ http://www.pbs.org/stantonanthony/resources/index.html?body=biography.html see "Quakers and 19th Century Reform" by William Frost and "Temperance and Suffrage" by Katherine Kish Sklar
  3. ^ Stearns, P. et al. (Eds.). (2002). The Encyclopedia of World History Ancient, Medieval, and Modern (6th ed.). New York: Bartleby.Com. Retrieved on May 14, 2008, from http://www.bartleby.com/67/.
  4. ^ The Encyclopedia of World History Ancient, Medieval, and Modern (6th ed.). New York: Bartleby.Com. Retrieved on May 14, 2008, from http://www.bartleby.com/67/.
  5. ^ SUNY at Stony Brook, New York
  6. ^ Executive Director, Instituto Promundo in Brazil
  7. ^ See, e.g., "Program H."
  • The Enlightenment: A Brief History With Documents, Margaret C. Jacob, Bedford/St. Martin's, 2001, ISBN 0-312-17997-9
  • The Feminine Mystique, Betty Friedan, W. W. Norton & Company, 2001 reprint, ISBN 0-393-32257-2
  • Feminism and History (Oxford Readings in Feminism), Joan Wallach Scott, Oxford University Press, 1996, ISBN 0-19-875169-9
  • Global Feminisms: A Survey of Issues and Controversies (Rewriting Histories), Bonnie G. Smith, Routledge, 2000, ISBN 0-415-18490-8
  • A History of Their Own: Women in Europe from Prehistory to the Present, Bonnie S. Anderson, Judith P. Zinsser, Oxford University Press, 1999 (revised edition), ISBN 0-19-512839-7
  • No Turning Back : The History of Feminism and the Future of Women, Estelle Freedman, Ballantine Books, 2002, ISBN B0001FZGQC
  • Judith Butler (1994). "Feminism in Any Other Name", differences 6:2-3: 44-45.
  • Akram, Mohammad Nadwi, (Oxford Centre for Islamic Studies), al-Muhaddithât – the Women Scholars in Islam, 2007, ISBN 0–9554545–1–4
  • Alice Echols, Daring to Be Bad: Radical Feminism in America, 1967-1975, University of Minnesota Press 1990
  • Clara Fraser, Revolution, She Wrote, Red Letter Press, 1998, ISBN 0-932323-04-9
  • Karen Kampwirth, Feminism and the Legacy of Revolution: Nicaragua, El Salvador, Chiapas, Ohio UP 2004
  • Gerda Lerner, The Creation of Feminist Consciousness: From the Middle Ages to Eighteen-Seventy, Oxford University Press 1994
  • Ellen Messer-Davidow: Disciplining feminism : from social activism to academic discourse, Duke University Press, 2002
  • Kaja Silverman, Male Subjectivity at the Margins, p.2-3. New York: Routledge 1992
  • Calvin Thomas, ed., "Introduction: Identification, Appropriation, Proliferation", Straight with a Twist: Queer Theory and the Subject of Heterosexuality, p.39n. University of Illinois Press (2000)
  • The Radical Women Manifesto: Socialist Feminist Theory, Program and Organizational Structure, (Seattle: Red Letter Press, 2001, ISBN 0-932323-11-1.)
  • Michael Kimmel(2005) Why Men Should Support Gender Equity, Women’s Studies Review.
  • J.Pulerwitz and G.Barker (2006) Promoting More Gender-Equitable Norms and Behaviours in Young Men as an HIV/AIDS Prevention Strategy, The Population Council.

[edit] See also