Fathers of scientific fields

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Those known as the father, mother, or considered the founder of a scientific field are the scientists who have made important contributions to that field. In some fields several people are considered the founders, while in others the title of being the "father" is debatable.

Contents

[edit] Biology

Subject Father / Mother of ... Reason
Bacteriology Robert Koch, Ferdinand Cohn,
Louis Pasteur[1] (founders)		 For their studies and scientific findings on bacteria and algae
Biology[2] Aristotle[3]
Entomology in North America Thomas Say[4]
Evolution and Natural Selection Charles Darwin[5][6][7] Publication: On the Origin of Species
Genetics Gregor Mendel[8] For his study of the inheritance of traits in pea plants, which forms the basis for Mendelian inheritance
Ichthyology Peter Artedi[9]
Lichenology Erik Acharius[10]
Microbiology Antonie van Leeuwenhoek[11] The first to microscopically observe micro-organisms in water and the first to see bacteria
Modern psychology Wilhelm Wundt[12]
Molecular biology Linus Pauling[13]
Neuroscience Santiago Ramón y Cajal[14]
(founder)		 For his formation of neuron doctrine
Taxonomy Carolus Linnaeus
[15](founder)		 naming of living organisms that became universally accepted in the scientific world
Toxicology Paracelsus[16]
Virology Martinus Beijerinck[17]
(founder)		 His studies of agricultural microbiology and industrial microbiology yielded fundamental discoveries in the field of biology

[edit] Chemistry

Subject Father / Mother of ... Reason
Atomic theory (modern) Father Roger Boscovich[18] For the first coherent description of atomic theory, well over a century before modern atomic theory emerged.
Chemical thermodynamics (modern) Gilbert Lewis, Willard Gibbs Merle Randall, and Edward Guggenheim (founders)[19] Books: Thermodynamics and the Free Energy of Chemical Substances (1923) and Modern Thermodynamics by the Methods of Willard Gibbs (1933); because of the major contributions of these two books in unifying the applications of thermodynamics to chemistry
Chemistry (early) Geber (Jabir ibn Hayyan)[20][21][22][23] Introduced the experimental method in alchemy (d. 815)
Chemistry (modern) Antoine Lavoisier[24]
Robert Boyle[24]
Jöns Berzelius[25][26]
John Dalton[24] (founders)		 Book: Elements of Chemistry (1787)
Book: The Sceptical Chymist (1661)
Development of chemical nomenclature (1800s)
Revival of atomic theory (1803)
Periodic table Dmitri Mendeleev[27] Arranged sixty-six elements (known at the time) in order of atomic weight by periodic intervals (1869)
Physical chemistry Hermann von Helmholtz,

Willard Gibbs(founders)[28]

 Devised much of the theoretical foundation for physical chemistry through their publications off, On the Equilibrium of Heterogeneous Substances(1876), and Thermodynamik chemischer Vorgange(1882)

[edit] Earth sciences

Subject Father / Mother of ... Reason
Geodesy Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī[29][30]
Geology Georges Cuvier[citation needed]
Father Nicholas Steno [31]

James Hutton[32]
For setting down most of the principles of modern geology.
For formulating uniformitarianism and the Plutonic theory of thought.
Limnology (modern) G. Evelyn Hutchinson[33]
Meteorology Matthew Fontaine Maury[34]
Naval oceanography (modern) Matthew Fontaine Maury[34]
Stratigraphy Father Nicholas Steno [31]

[edit] Mathematics

Subject Father / Mother of ... Reason
Algebra
See also Father of Algebra		 Brahmagupta, Al-Khwarizmi (Algorismi)[35][36]
Diophantus[37][38]		 Full exposition of solving quadratic equations in The Compendious Book on Calculation by Completion and Balancing.
First use of symbolism (syncopation) in the Arithmetica.
Analytic Geometry René Descartes
Pierre de Fermat[39](founders)		 For their independent invention of the Cartesian Coordinate System
Applied Mechanics (modern) Stephen Timoshenko[citation needed] Reputed to be the father of modern applied mechanics. Wrote many of the seminal works in this area, many of which are still used today.
Calculus Isaac Newton[40]
Gottfried Leibniz		 See Leibniz and Newton calculus controversy.
Classical analysis Madhava of Sangamagrama[41] Developed Taylor series expansions of trigonometric functions
Descriptive geometry Gaspard Monge[42]
(founder)		 Developed a graphical protocol which creates three-dimensional virtual space on a two-dimensional plane
Geometry Euclid[43] Euclid's Elements deduced the principles of Euclidean geometry from a set of axioms.
Non-Euclidean Geometry János Bolyai,
Nikolai Lobachevsky[44](founders)		 Independent development of hyperbolic geometry in which Euclid's fifth postulate is not true
Projective Geometry Gérard Desargues[45](founder) By generalizing the use of vanishing points to include the case when these are infinitely far away
Statistics Pierre de Fermat, Blaise Pascal,and Christiaan Huygens
[46](founders)		 For their development of probability theory, from which arises mathematical statistics
Tensor calculus Gregorio Ricci-Curbastro[47]
(founder)		 Book: The Absolute Differential Calculus
Trigonometry Aryabhatta, Hipparchus[48][49] Constructed the first trigonometric table.
Vector algebra,
Vector calculus		 Willard Gibbs[50]
Oliver Heaviside[51]
(founders)		 For their development and use of vectors in algebra and calculus

[edit] Medicine and Physiology

Subject Father / Mother of ... Reason
American Psychiatry Benjamin Rush[52]
Audiology Raymond Carhart[53][54]
Circulatory physiology Ibn al-Nafis[55] Discovered the pulmonary circulation and the capillary and coronary circulations in the Commentary on Anatomy in Avicenna's Canon (1242)
Cognitive therapy Aaron T. Beck[56]
Emergency medicine Frank Pantridge[57]
Experimental surgery Ibn Zuhr (Avenzoar)[58] Introduced experimental method into surgery in his Al-Taisir
Fitness Jack LaLanne[59]
Gynaecology J. Marion Sims[60] [61]
Human anatomy (modern) Vesalius[62]
 Book: De humani corporis fabrica (1543)
Medicine (early) Imhotep[63][64][65]
Hippocrates[66][3]
Charaka[67]		 Wrote the first medical treatise, the Edwin Smith papyrus.
Prescribed practices for physicians through the Hippocratic Oath, establishing the profession.
Wrote the Charaka Samhitā and founded the Ayurveda system of medicine.
Medicine (modern) Avicenna[68] Introduced experimental medicine and systematic experimentation and quantification in physiology and discovered the contagious nature of infectious diseases in the The Canon of Medicine (1020).
Modern nutrition Justus von Liebig[69]
Modern dentistry Pierre Fauchard[70]
Nursing (modern) Florence Nightingale[71]
Pediatrics Muhammad ibn Zakarīya Rāzi (Rhazes)[72] Wrote The Diseases of Children, the first book to deal with pediatrics as an independent field
Physiology Claude Bernard[73] Publication: An Introduction to the Study of Experimental Medicine (1865)
Physical culture Bernarr Macfadden[74]
Plastic surgery Sushruta[75][76] Wrote the Sushruta Samhita
Psychoanalysis Sigmund Freud[77]
Space medicine Hubertus Strughold[78]
Surgery (early) Sushruta[75][76] Wrote the Sushruta Samhita, the first surgical treatise
Surgery (modern) Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi (Abulcasis)[79]
Ambroise Paré[80]		 Publication: Kitab al-Tasrif (1000).
Leader in surgical techniques, especially the treatment of wounds.

[edit] Physics and Astronomy

Subject Father / Mother of ... Reason
Acoustics Ernst Chladni[81] For important research in vibrating plates
Aerodynamics Nikolai Zhukovsky
George Cayley[82]
 Zhukovsky was the first to undertake the study of airflow, was the first engineer scientist to explain mathematically the origin of aerodynamic lift. Cayley Investigated theoretical aspects of flight and experimented with flight a century before the first airplane was built
Astronomy (modern) Nicolaus Copernicus[83] Developed the first explicit heliocentric model in De revolutionibus orbium coelestium
Classical mechanics Isaac Newton (founder)[84] Described laws of motion and law of gravity in Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica (1687)
Electricity William Gilbert[85]
Michael Faraday[citation needed]
Benjamin Franklin[citation needed]
Thomas Edison[86]		 Book: De Magnete (1600)
Discovered electromagnetic induction (1831)
Proposed a kite experiment to prove that lightning is electricity (1750)
Invented many electrical devices, such as the carbon microphone
Energetics Willard Gibbs[87] Publication: On the Equilibrium of Heterogeneous Substances (1876)
Modern science Galileo Galilei[88][89] For systemic use of experimentation in science and contributions to scientific method, physics, and observational astronomy
Momentum Avicenna[90] Described an early concept of momentum.
Nuclear physics Ernest Rutherford[91] Developed the Rutherford atom model (1909)
nuclear science Marie Curie[92]
Optics Ibn al-Haytham (Alhacen)[93] Correctly explained vision and carried out the first experiments on light and optics in the Book of Optics (1021).
Physics (modern) Galileo Galilei[94] His development and use of experimental physics, e.g. the telescope.
Quantum mechanics Max Planck (founder)[95] Stated that electromagnetic energy could be emitted only in quantized form
Relativity Albert Einstein(founder)[96] Pioneered special relativity (1905) and general relativity (1915)
Scientific method Ibn al-Haytham (Alhacen)[97]
Francis Bacon[98]		 Pioneered an early scientific method in the Book of Optics (1021).
Developed Baconian method in Novum Organum (1620).
Spaceflight Konstantin Tsiolkovsky
Sergei Korolev		 Tsiolkovsky created the Tsiolkovsky rocket equation. Korolev was the peeson behind the Sputnik program
Thermodynamics Sadi Carnot (founder)[99] Publication: On the Motive Power of Fire and Machines Fitted to Develop that Power (1824)

[edit] Systems theory

Subject Father / Mother of ... Reason
Chaos theory Edward Lorenz [100] Lorenz attractor
Cybernetics Norbert Wiener [101] Wiener process
Dynamic programming Richard E. Bellman
Information theory Claude Shannon[102] Article: A Mathematical Theory of Communication (1948)
Optimal control Arthur E. Bryson[103] Book: Applied Optimal Control[104]
Robust control George Zames[citation needed] Small gain theorem and H infinity control.
Stability theory Alexander Lyapunov[citation needed] Lyapunov function

[edit] Other

[edit] References

  1. ^ Drews G (1999). "Ferdinand Cohn, a Founder of Modern Microbiology". ASM News 65 (8).
  2. ^ Suggested 1802 by German naturalist Gottfried Reinhold Treviranus and introduced as a scientific term that year in France by Jean-Baptiste Lamarck.
  3. ^ a b Strong, W.F. & Cook, John A. (July 2007), “Reviving the Dead Greek Guys”, Global Media Journal, Indian Edition, ISSN: 1550-7521, <http://www.manipal.edu/gmj/issues/jul07/strong.php> 
  4. ^ Schuh, Randall T. (1995). True Bugs of the World: Classification and Natural History. Cornell University Press. ISBN 0-8014-2066-0. , p. 11
  5. ^ Darwin, Charles (1842 (published 1909)), "Pencil Sketch of 1842", in Darwin, Francis, The foundations of The origin of species: Two essays written in 1842 and 1844., Cambridge University Press, <http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F1556&viewtype=text&pageseq=1> Retrieved on 2006-12-15
  6. ^ Moore, James (2006), "Evolution and Wonder - Understanding Charles Darwin", Speaking of Faith (Radio Program), American Public Media, <http://speakingoffaith.publicradio.org/programs/darwin/transcript.shtml> Retrieved on 2006-12-15
  7. ^ van Wyhe, John (2006), Charles Darwin: gentleman naturalist: A biographical sketch, <http://darwin-online.org.uk/darwin.html> Retrieved on 2006-12-15
  8. ^ The Father of Genetics
  9. ^ Jordan, David Starr (1905). A Guide to the Study of Fishes. Henry Holt and Company. , online at [1], p.390: "Far greater than either of these... was he who has been justly called the Father of Ichthyology, Petrus (Peter) Artedi (1705–35)."
  10. ^ "Erik Acharius, the father of lichenology," Department of Cryptogamic Botany, Swedish Museum of Natural History. Link. 17 December 1999.
  11. ^ Madigan M, Martinko J (editors) (2006). Brock Biology of Microorganisms, 11th ed., Prentice Hall.
  12. ^ Wilhelm Wundt in Psychology Biographies at ALLPSYCH Online
  13. ^ Ava Helen and Linus Pauling Papers - Special Collections - Oregon State University
  14. ^ Ramón y Cajal, Santiago [1897] (1999). Advice for a Young Investigator, translated by Neely Swanson and Larry W. Swanson, Cambridge: MIT Press.
  15. ^ Hovey, Edmund Otis. The Bicentenary of the Birth of Carolus Linnaeus. New York: New York Academy of Sciences, 1908.
  16. ^ Paracelsus: Herald of Modern Toxicology - Borzelleca 53 (1): 2 - Toxicological Sciences
  17. ^ Chung, King-Thom and Ferris, Deam Hunter (1996). Martinus Willem Beijerinck (1851–1931): pioneer of general microbiology. AMS News 62, 539-543.
  18. ^ Woods, Thomas. How the Catholic Church Built Western Civilization, p 4 & 107. (Washington, DC: Regenery, 2005); ISBN 0-89526-038-7.
  19. ^ Ott, Bevan, J.; Boerio-Goates, Juliana (2001). Chemical Thermodynamics - Principles and Applications. ISBN 0-12-530990-2. 
  20. ^ Derewenda, Zygmunt S. (2007), “On wine, chirality and crystallography”, Acta Crystallographica Section A: Foundations of Crystallography 64: 246–258 [247] 
  21. ^ John Warren (2005). "War and the Cultural Heritage of Iraq: a sadly mismanaged affair", Third World Quarterly, Volume 26, Issue 4 & 5, p. 815-830.
  22. ^ Dr. A. Zahoor (1997). JABIR IBN HAIYAN (Geber). University of Indonesia.
  23. ^ Paul Vallely. How Islamic inventors changed the world. The Independent.
  24. ^ a b c Kim, Mi Gyung (2003). Affinity , That Elusive Dream - A Genealogy of the Chemical Revolution (Epilogue: A Tale of Three Fathers). ISBN 0-262-11273-6. 
  25. ^ Berzelius, Jöns (1779–1848) - Eric Weisstein's World of Scientific Biography
  26. ^ Jons Jacob - Encyclopædia Britannica Online, 2 Aug 2007
  27. ^ Chemistry Contexts. by Irwin, D; Farrelly, R; Garnett, P. Longman Sciences, (2001)
  28. ^ Wheeler, Lynde, Phelps (1951). Josiah Willard Gibbs - the History of a Great Mind. Ox Bow Press.
  29. ^ Akbar S. Ahmed (1984). "Al-Beruni: The First Anthropologist", RAIN 60, p. 9-10.
  30. ^ Zafarul-Islam Khan, At The Threshold Of A New Millennium – II, The Milli Gazette.
  31. ^ a b Woods, Thomas. How the Catholic Church Built Western Civilization, p 4 & 96. (Washington, DC: Regenery, 2005); ISBN 0-89526-038-7.
  32. ^ Jack Repcheck: The Man Who Found Time: James Hutton and the Discovery of the Earth's Antiquity. London and Cambridge, Massachusetts: Simon & Schuster (2003).
  33. ^ G. Evelyn Hutchinson a.k.a. Father of modern limnology and the modern Darwin (1903–1991)
  34. ^ a b Lewis, Charles Lee, associate professor of the United States Naval Academy: Pathfinder of the Seas (book).
  35. ^ Solomon Gandz (1936), The sources of al-Khwarizmi's algebra, Osiris I, p. 263–277: "In a sense, Khwarizmi is more entitled to be called "the father of algebra" than Diophantus because Khwarizmi is the first to teach algebra in an elementary form and for its own sake, Diophantus is primarily concerned with the theory of numbers."
  36. ^ Serish Nanisetti, Father of algorithms and algebra, The Hindu, June 23, 2006.
  37. ^ Boyer, Carl B. (1991). "The Arabic Hegemony", A History of Mathematics, Second Edition, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 228. ISBN 0471543977. “Diophantus sometimes is called "the father of algebra," but this title more appropriately belongs to al-Khwarizmi. It is true that in two respects the work of al-Khwarizmi represented a retrogression from that of Diophantus. First, it is on a far more elementary level than that found in in the Diophantine problems and, second, the algebra of al-Khwarizmi is thoroughly rhetorical, with none of the syncopation found in the Greek Arithmetica or in Brahmagupta's work. Even numbers were written out in words rather than symbols! It is quite unlikely that al-Khwarizmi knew of the work of Diophantus, but he must have been familiar with at least the astronomical and computational portions of Brahmagupta; yet neither al-Khwarizmi nor other Arabic scholars made use of syncopation or of negative numbers.” 
  38. ^ Derbyshire, John (2006). "The Father of Algebra", Unknown Quantity: A Real And Imaginary History of Algebra. Joseph Henry Press, 31. ISBN 030909657X. “Diophantus, the father of algebra, in whose honor I have named this chapter, lived in Alexandria, in Roman Egypt, in either the 1st, the 2nd, or the 3rd century CE.” 
  39. ^ Gullberg, Jan (1997). Mathematics From The Birth Of Numbers. W. W. Norton
  40. ^ Bell, E.T. [1937] (1986). Men of Mathematics, Touchstone edition, New York: Simon & Schuster, pp. 91–2.
  41. ^ George Gheverghese Joseph (2000). The Crest of the Peacock. Princeton University Press.
  42. ^ "Monge, Gaspard, comte de Peluse." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2007. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 24 Aug. 2007 <http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9053349>.
  43. ^ Artmann, Benno (1999). Euclid: The Creation of Mathematics. New York: Springer.
  44. ^ Marvin Jay Greenberg, Euclidean and Non-Euclidean geometries: Development and history New York: W. H. Freeman, 1993.
  45. ^ O'Connor, John J; Edmund F. Robertson "Gérard Desargues". MacTutor History of Mathematics archive.
  46. ^ Stigler, Stephen M. (1990). The History of Statistics: The Measurement of Uncertainty before 1900. Belknap Press/Harvard University Press.
  47. ^ O'Connor, John J; Edmund F. Robertson "Gregorio Ricci-Curbastro". MacTutor History of Mathematics archive.
  48. ^ Boyer (1991). "Greek Trigonometry and Mensuration", A History of Mathematics, Second Edition, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 162. ISBN 0471543977. “For some two and a half centuries, from Hippocrates to Eratosthenes, Greek mathematicians had studied relationships between lines and circles and had applied these in a variety of astronomical problems, but no systematic trigonometry had resulted. Then, presumably during the second half of the second century B.C., the first trigonometric table apparently was compiled by the astronomer Hipparchus of Nicaea (ca. 180-ca. 125 B.C.), who thus earned the right to be known as "the father of trigonometry." Aristarchus had known that in a given circle the ratio of arc to chord decreases from 180° to 0°, tending toward a limit of 1. However, it appears that not until Hipparchus undertook the task had anyone tabulated corresponding values of arc and chord for a whole series of angles.” 
  49. ^ Boyer's opinion may constructively be compared to Øystein Ore's opinion, that the Babylonians constructed trigonometric tables ca 1600 BCE (Ore (1988). "Diophantine Problems", Number Theory and its History. Dover Publications, Inc., 176–179. ISBN 0-486-65620-9. “The tablet, catalogued as Plimpton 322, is composed in Old Babylonian script so that it must fall in the period from 1900 B.C. and 1600 B.C., at least a millennium before the Pythagoreans. … It is evident, however, that at this early date the Babylonians not only had completely mastered the Pythagorean problem, but also had used it as the basis for the construction of trigonometric tables.” )
  50. ^ Wheeler, Lynde, Phelps (1951). Josiah Willard Gibbs - the History of a Great Mind. Ox Bow Press.
  51. ^ Michael J. Crowe (1994). A History of Vector Analysis : The Evolution of the Idea of a Vectorial System. Dover Publications; Reprint edition.
  52. ^ Diseases of the Mind: Highlights of American Psychiatry through 1900 - Benjamin Rush
  53. ^ Hall, James W. (1999). Handbook of Otoacoustic Emissions. Thomson Delmar Learning. ISBN 1-56593-873-9. , p. 2: the Father of Audiology himself, Raymond Carhart at Northwestern University..."
  54. ^ Hall, James W.; H. Gustav Mueller (1998). Audiologists Desk Reference: Audiolologic Management, Rehabilitation and Terminology. Thomson Delmar Learning. ISBN 1-56593-711-2. , p. 912: "Carhart notch: A decrease in the bone-conduction hearing at the 2000 Hz region of patients with otosclerosis first reported by and therefore named after the father of audiology, Raymond Carhart."
  55. ^ Chairman's Reflections (2004), "Traditional Medicine Among Gulf Arabs, Part II: Blood-letting", Heart Views 5 (2), p. 74-85 [80].
  56. ^ Durand, V. Mark, Jim; David H Barlow (2005). Essentials of Abnormal Psychology. Thomson Wadsworth. ISBN 0-495-03128-3. , p. 235: "In developing ways to do this, Beck became the father of cognitive therapy, one of the most important developments in psychotherapy in the last 50 years."
  57. ^ UK Daily Telegraph obituary 12/29/2004.
  58. ^ Rabie E. Abdel-Halim (2006), "Contributions of Muhadhdhab Al-Deen Al-Baghdadi to the progress of medicine and urology", Saudi Medical Journal 27 (11): 1631–1641.
  59. ^ Father of fitness, Jack La Lanne, turns 90, MSNBC, September 24, 2004. "He continues to live by his motto, 'I can't die, it would ruin my image!'"
  60. ^ Log In Problems
  61. ^ History of Women and Science, Health, and Technology
  62. ^ Vallejo-Manzur F et al. (2003) "The resuscitation greats. Andreas Vesalius, the concept of an artificial airway." Resuscitation" 56:3-7
  63. ^ Mostafa Shehata, MD (2004), "The Father of Medicine: A Historical Reconsideration", J Med Ethics 12, p. 171-176 [176].
  64. ^ How Imhotep gave us medicine, The Daily Telegraph, 10/05/2007.
  65. ^ Jimmy Dunn, Imhotep, Doctor, Architect, High Priest, Scribe and Vizier to King Djoser.[2]
  66. ^ Hippocrates, Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia 2006. Microsoft Corporation.
  67. ^ Nirupama Laroia, M.D. and Deeksha Sharma (June 2006). "The Religious and Cultural Bases for Breastfeeding Practices Among the Hindus", Mary Ann Liebert, Inc. 1 (2), p. 94-98.
  68. ^ Cas Lek Cesk (1980). "The father of medicine, Avicenna, in our science and culture. Abu Ali ibn Sina (980-1037)", Becka J. 119 (1), p. 17-23.
  69. ^ Black, Rebecca. The Support of Breastfeeding: Module 1. Jones and Bartlett Publishers. ISBN 0-7637-0208-0. , p.9: "Justus Von Liebig, the 'father of modern nutrition', developed the perfect infant food. It consisted of wheat flour, cow's milk, malt flour and bicarbonate of potash."
  70. ^ de Vaux, Jean Claude. The Pierre Fauchard Academy (English). Retrieved on 2006-07-22, 2006. Retrieved on July 22, 2006.
  71. ^ [3]
  72. ^ David W. Tschanz, PhD (2003), "Arab Roots of European Medicine", Heart Views 4 (2).
  73. ^ Bernard, Claude. An Introduction to the Study of Experimental Medicine, 1865. First English translation by Henry Copley Greene, published by Macmillan & Co., Ltd., 1927; reprinted in 1949. The Dover Edition of 1957 is a reprint of the original translation with a new Foreword by I. Bernard Cohen of Harvard University.
  74. ^ Oursler, Fulton; Will Oursler (1949). Father Flanagan of Boys Town. Doubleday. , p.270: "It delighted the heart of our old friend Bernarr Macfadden, 'the Father of Physical Culture,' when we told him how much athletic activity and good sportsmanship had to do with the rehabilitation of boys."
  75. ^ a b A. Singh and D. Sarangi (2003). "We need to think and act", Indian Journal of Plastic Surgery.
  76. ^ a b H. W. Longfellow (2002). "History of Plastic Surgery in India", Journal of Postgraduate Medicine.
  77. ^ Sigmund Freud [Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy]
  78. ^ Lee, Martin A.; Bruce Shlain (1986). Acid Dreams: The Complete Social History of LSD: The CIA, the Sixties, and Beyond. Grove Press. ISBN 0-8021-3062-3. , p.6: "After Wernher von Braun, he was the top Nazi scientist employed by the American government, and he was subsequently hailed by NASA as the 'father of space medicine'". See also Harry Armstrong.
  79. ^ Martin-Araguz, A.; Bustamante-Martinez, C.; Fernandez-Armayor, Ajo V.; Moreno-Martinez, J. M. (2002). "Neuroscience in al-Andalus and its influence on medieval scholastic medicine", Revista de neurología 34 (9), p. 877-892.
  80. ^ Pare, Ambroise." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2007. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 25 Aug. 2007 <http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9058441>.
  81. ^ Chladniite: A New Mineral Honoring the Father of Meteoritics, McCoy, T. J.; Steele, I. M.; Keil, K.; Leonard, B. F.; Endress, M., Meteoritics, vol. 28, no. 3, volume 28, page 394, 07/1993
  82. ^ "Cayley, Sir George." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2007. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 25 Aug. 2007 <http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9360092>.
  83. ^ Danielson, Dennis, "The First Copernican: Georg Joachim Rheticus and the Rise of the Copernican Revolution", Walker & Company, 2006
  84. ^ Christianson, Gale (1984). In the Presence of the Creator: Isaac Newton & his times. New York: Free Press.
  85. ^ Merriam-Webster Collegiate Dictionary, 2000, CD-ROM, version 2.5.
  86. ^ Kurland, Gerald. 91972). Thomas Edison, father of electricity and master inventor of our modern age, Charlotteville, N.Y.: SamHar Press.
  87. ^ Josiah Willard Gibbs - Britannica, 1911
  88. ^ Finocchiaro, Maurice A. (Fall 2007), "Book Review—The Person of the Millennium: The Unique Impact of Galileo on World History", The Historian 69 (3): 601–602
  89. ^ Weidhorn, Manfred (2005). The Person of the Millennium: The Unique Impact of Galileo on World History. Universe, p. 155.
  90. ^ Seyyed Hossein Nasr, "Islamic Conception Of Intellectual Life", in Philip P. Wiener (ed.), Dictionary of the History of Ideas, Vol. 2, p. 65, Charles Scribner's Sons, New York, 1973–1974.
  91. ^ Pasachoff, Naomi (2005). Ernest Rutherford: Father Of Nuclear Science (Great Minds of Science). ISBN 0-7660-2441-5. 
  92. ^ Resources
  93. ^ R. L. Verma (1969). Al-Hazen: father of modern optics.
  94. ^ Weidhorn, Manfred (2005). The Person of the Millennium: The Unique Impact of Galileo on World History. iUniverse, p. 155. ISBN 0595368778.
  95. ^ Heilbron, J. L. The Dilemmas of an Upright Man: Max Planck and the Fortunes of German Science (Harvard, 2000)
  96. ^ Rosanna Gorini (2003). "Al-Haytham the Man of Experience. First Steps in the Science of Vision", International Society for the History of Islamic Medicine. Institute of Neurosciences, Laboratory of Psychobiology and Psychopharmacology, Rome, Italy.
  97. ^ MLA style: "Bacon, Francis, Viscount Saint Alban, Baron of Verulam." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2007. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 28 Dec. 2007 <http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9108408>. APA style: Bacon, Francis, Viscount Saint Alban, Baron of Verulam. (2007).
  98. ^ Perrot, Pierre (1998). A to Z of Thermodynamics. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-856552-6. 
  99. ^ http://web.mit.edu/newsoffice/2008/obit-lorenz-0416.html
  100. ^ Conway, F., and Siegelman, J., 2005. Dark Hero of the Information Age: in search of Norbert Wiener, the father of cybernetics. Basic Books, New York. 423pp. ISBN 0-7382-0368-8
  101. ^ Bell Labs website: "For example, Claude Shannon, the father of Information Theory, had a passion..."
  102. ^ 2004 Distinguished Alumni
  103. ^ Bryson, A.E.; Ho, Y.C. (1975). Applied optimal control. Washington, DC: Hemisphere.