Farming in Kenya
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[1]Farming in Kenya
Contents |
[edit] Introduction
World food production is providing an adequate diet for all humans, yet more than 840 million people are suffering from hunger [2]. How can farm practices be improved to sustainable farming methods that will help people across the world feed and sustain themselves?
Over 80 percent of the population in Kenya is farmers [3]. Most of these farmers live and grow their plants between latitudes 48 N and 40 S, at altitudes from sea-level to 3000m (Biovision 2008). The total sustainable area for agriculture in Kenya is 17 percent (Mwanda 2000).
[edit] Sweet Potatoes
The sweet potatoes provide their highest yield when grown in rain fed soil; they need also the soil moisture to remain constant (Mwanda 2000). Although sweet potato can be grown in several types of soil, the preferred soil is well drained with sandy loam (Macharia 2004). If the soil holds the water near the surface, the soil becomes water logged. Water logged soil can destroy the root structure. For this reason, sweet potato plants are often grown in mounds or ridges (Leahy 2008). This system also is easier on the farmer who uses hand tools. In areas where the soil is well drained, plants are grown in flat rows. To decrease the loss of soil nutrition, when water is ample enough, the farmer must be careful with water run off and make sure the root system is adequately watered (Macharia 2004). Sweet potatoes need at least an annual rainfall of 600-1600 mm during the growing season (Macharia 2004).
The most common varieties that Kenyan sweet potato farmers have been growing are white, red, and purple varieties in their fields. There has been an increased popularity of the yellow-fleshed type of sweet potato. The nutritionists have been promoting a change to this yellow-fleshed type of sweet potato because it provides increased levels of vitamin A, which is currently lacking in the Kenyan diet (Nel 2008). The vitamin A deficiency will not kill, but it leaves the immune system depleted and susceptible to measles, malaria, and diarrhea (Nel 2008). Over 350,000 children go blind each year for lack of vitamin A (Nel 2008).
Despite intensive efforts to develop true resistant plants, little has been achieved so far. Therefore, attention is turning to pseudo resistance – escaping weevil damage through deeper formation of storage roots and short-season varieties, which are exposed to weevil infestation for less time (Cipotato 2008). Where farmers piecemeal their sweet potato harvest, there can be up to a 10 percent crop loss, due to disease and weevils. Beetle pests can completely destroy sweet potato plantations.
[edit] Conventional Growing
Because of pest and disease, and decreased soil nutrients, farmers are rotating their sweet potato plants as much as possible. The practice had ben to use a field for sweet potato plants only once every 5 years, and not have the crop in the same field for two consecutive years. “Planting rice between two sweet potato crops have long been suggested” (Biovision 2008). When sweet potatoes and rice crops were planted in fields adjacent to each other, the sweet potato weevil infestation level dropped. “Reduced weevil damage was observed when sweet potato was intercropped with proso millet and sesame, but sweet potato yield was also considerably reduced. The sweet potato has been found to inhibit germination of proso millet (Biovision 2008). This crop rotation and growing pattern is very common in Africa.
Weed control requires many hours of manual labor. Uncontrolled weed growth reduces crop yield as much as 60 percent. “Some farmers solve this problem by cultivating a smaller area, but this also reduces total yields. Herbicides are too expensive for most smallholders” (Mwanda 2000). When the sweet potato plant is propagated a number of consecutive times, the yield decreases and the virus build-up increases. “Viruses can be removed by heat treatment. The process usually increases the yield product of both vine and roots, from 20% to 200%, depending on the severity of the original virus infestation” (Sweet Potato).
[edit] Organic Growing
An 8 year comparative studies the ‘Sustainable Agriculture Farming Systems’ project compared “conventional farming systems with differing practices of crop rotation and soil substance (Vasilikiotis 2001). The results showed that organic methods had yields in the same range as conventional systems for all crops that were studied, and for some crop studies the yield level was higher for organics than conventional systems. The organic systems were noted for “increases in the organic carbon content of the soil and larger pools of stored nutrients, each of which is critical for long-term fertility maintenance” (Vasilikiotis 2001). Sweet potato is typically grown organically about Africa. To decrease labor for weeding, farmers interviewed by Macharia (2004) expressed preference for planting on mounds after trying ridges. Farmers found mound methods yielded larger tubers, and more easy to use without new fertilizers or chemicals (Macharia 2004). Organic farming includes crop rotation, and mulches to control pests and soil fertility. Organic farming by the Rothamsted and Rodale experiments have shown that “manure-based systems can provide enough nitrogen not only to sustain high crop yields but also to build up the nitrogen storage in the soil” (Vasilikiotis 2001). According, to the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Kenya had no percentage of certified organic cropland in 2003, yet certainly farmers use organic methods. Genetically-Altered Growing
[edit] Genetically Modified (GM) Plants
With the understanding of conventional farming methods, it’s pro’s and cons, we can see that the development of genetically modified food and pesticides might easily take a role in feeding the poor.
Biotechnology is the application of our knowledge and understanding of biology to meet practical needs. It includes selective plant breeding. Genetic technology is only one field within biotechnology. It is also the most controversial.
Robert Shapiro, CEO of Monsanto Corporation said in the BIO 98 meeting, “It is impossible to conceive of increases in productivity-using current technologies-that don’t produce major issues for the sustainability of agriculture (Royal Society of London et.al., 1999)” On the other hand, advocate Caleb Odondi Omolo of Village Volunteers said, “No GM are NOT better for the farmers it is a quick fix, they get very good crop yield in the short term but in the long term it costs dependency on chemical fertilizers which are getting very expensive. As the price of gas rises, so does the cost of chemicals. The chemical kills all the nutrients and organic matter in the soil so farmers have to use them al the time. The chemical leaves the top soil in very bad shape (Omolo, 2008).”
It is very likely the truth likely lies somewhere between the rhetoric of co corporate mega opportunities and international social programs.
[edit] What are GM's?
GM’s exist in 23 countries and are in use by 55 million farmers. In Africa, only South Africa has officially adopted the technology. Genetic Technology aims selectively to alter, add or remove a character of choice in a plant. The transfer of the gene can take place across species lines. This can produce a plant with a desired trait faster than conventional growing because the majority of the plant genome has not been changed. Examples include firefly genes added to tobacco plants to make them glow, genetically engineered bacteria that decreases fat in pork, and growth hormones that increase milk production in cows (Easton, 2004).
In Africa, the most prevalent are genes added to plants that are said to eliminate or withstand biotic and a biotic stresses. Biotic stresses are those issues like bugs and weeds. A biotic stresses are those like high salt levels in soil, dry climates, little available water and erosion. Where people are starving everyday due to both types of stresses, the pressure for nations like Kenya to accept GM’s is great.
[edit] Herbicides and Pesticides
“Most genetically modified (GM) crops being cultivated today were developed to be herbicide tolerant and resistant to pests. Development of GM crops with traits valuable for poor farmers, especially within the context of climate change – such as resistance to drought, extreme temperatures, soil acidity and salinity – is not yet a reality,” states Dr. Jacques Diouf, Director-General, of the Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations (Macharia 2004).
[edit] Weeds
Another GM method is the use of Herbicide resistant crops (HRC’s). Technology packages that include the chemical herbicide and the genetically altered seed that can resist the herbicide. Theoretically, the benefits of using HRC’s arise from a decrease in weeds that result in decreased tillage. Over tillage exposes the top-soil and causes erosion and drying. Benefits can include a decreased reliance on chemical insecticides and easier harvesting. The end result leading to higher proportions of crops, less land space, labor, and an overall increase in productivity and decrease in costs(Halweil, 1999).
Problems arise when the soil and water is polluted from herbicides and pesticides. Long term side affects on humans have not been extablished.
Another concern is that by killing one species, another weed species is encouraged. One expert said, “When one species of any form has a competitive advantage over another in the wild, then there will be an expected increase.” Still another concern is Genetic Pollution: Transgenes from these crops can and do interbreed with close relatives in the vicinity. Creates a herbicide resistant variety of weed. Thus, the farmers have to keep altering the seed and spray combo, and this can turn in to an endless cycle(Halweil, 1999).
[edit] Bugs
Conventionally, farmers spray crops with chemical pesticides, as needed. However, a range of issues can arise such as resistance to chemicals, and death of nearby crops. It is costly and labor intensive as well (Halweil, 1999).
Monsanto developed seeds which contain the gene for Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt), Known also as Round-Up. Bt Crops are plants created with a gene that is deadly to bugs that interfere with crop yields. Bt is a substance deadly to many insects and has been the most popular with cotton and potato crops(Halweil, 1999).
There are several issues advocates claim against Bt. The seed is more expensive. It is also just another form of insecticide, only it is packaged inside the plant, and instead of being used as needed, it is ever present(Halweil, 1999). This process causes the pests to select for pesticide resistance much more than the occasional spraying of crops. Thus, the need for Resistance Management Programs.
Farmers are reportedly advised on the method of “refugia”. This is the process of planting non Bt crops amidst or near the Bt crops. The hope is that insects with the resistant gene will breed with those without, thus producing more insects that are not resistant. This theory has two weaknesses: first, it assumes that the said bugs have recessive resistant traits. Second, this plan is very difficult for farmers to follow correctly(Halweil, 1999).
Monsanto created products that are “trait stacking” – combining several engineered genes in a single variety.” Such as corn with several toxins within it. (Halweil, 1999)
[edit] Advocates for GM's
The Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation has invested, alongside USAID and other agencies, millions of dollars for the research of GM's (The Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation). Monsanto does most of that research (GMwatch, 2008), (Harvest Plus, 2008).
One of the primary focuse for agricultural development division of the Gates Foundation and other agencies like them are to develope plants and vegetables that are resistant to viruses, like the Rice Yellow Mottle Virus (RYMV) which has devastated crops in sub Saharan Africa. Seeds that grow potatoes and corn with vitamin additions are very popular with the scientists because Vitamin supplement programs are very costly. Scientists have developed a rice with Three genes inserted (1 daffodile and 2 microorganisms) that cause an increase in beta carotene (Harvest Plus, 2008). Also there is a transgenic rice with iron-binding proteins. Scientists have also developed ways to grow plants such as bananas that have vaccines within them. This is said to help reduce costs because needles and storage are not necessary.
GM Researchers are focused on solving farming problems such as: disease resistance, pest resistance, and drought tolerance. It is stated that the GM company goal is “to enable small resource farmers to produce enough food to eat in addition to surplus which is commercially attractive to sell” (Nel 2008). “Centro Internacional de la Papa researchers are evaluating a molecular approach that is based on a relatively simple concept. Because weevils digest their food with the help of certain proteinases, it may be possible to interrupt their feeding process by incorporating proteinases-inhibitor genes into the sweet potato genome” (Cipotato 2008).
[edit] Criticisms of GM's
Trait stacking cost 500 Million in research for Monsanto. Monsantos sells technology seed packages equipped with virus resistant seeds that are patented, and the chemicals together(Hand, 2008). Sales are expected to reach 25 billion by 2010(Black, 2008). They believe they should own the patents, the genes, and the seeds(Hlweil, 1999). The corporation makes contracts with seed buyers which require them to agree they will not replant the seeds, re-sell the seeds, or trade the seeds. By 2006, Monsanto had taken legal action against over 300 farmers for replanting seeds (Halweil, 1999).
Farmers who depend on exporting to Europe can no longer do so if their crops are contaminated with GM’s. Europe is requiring more and more testing of the Produce they receive, which causes farmers great stress. They say they can not control what their neighbor is growing. If their neighbors plants blow GM seed into their own crops, then they can not sell those crops. Many farmers in Kenya refer to GM Maize deleivered by the US as the Trojan horse(Hand, 2008). GM’s are currently illegal in Kenya, and yet the US continues to send GM corn to Kenya in the form of Aid (Black, 2004).
Kenyans and other African nations like Malawi and Zimbabe will grind the corn into flour before distributing it. Some activists have said that the US is purposefully distributing GM’s as aid, so that they can undercut the organic export market, and cause Europe to start buying from the US. Still other farmers simpy aren’t aware of GM’s, and others are as Celeb said, simply too poor to “Most farmers are too poor to afford the chemicals required to plant the GM Seeds (Omolo, 2008)” If a farmer uses the chemicals then the soil becomes poor, and the farmer can then find themselves in a predicament that they would not have encountered had they not used the chemicals and the GM’s. “To date (2006), over 30 million hectares of transgenic crops have been grown and no human helath problems associated specifically with the ingestion of transgenic crops or their products have been identified (Easton, 2006).”
Over use of Herbicides, pesticides, fertilizers, and over tillage have caused severe environmental damage. And farmers are then forced to accept seeds that can grow in any condition.
Advocates against genetically altered plants say that “production of new varieties is dominated by commercial plant breeders, who seek to protect their work and collect royalties through national and international agreements based on intellectual property right” (Leahy 2008). Michelle Nel stated in an Executive summary released in 2008, that “Syngenta has quietly been working at cornering the GM food potato market; lodging patents in the USA and other countries for a form of terminator technology that prevents potatoes from sprouting unless they are treated with chemicals supplied by the patent owner” (Nel 2008). Nel goes on to say that the farmers can not afford to be paying for a crop that will need to be replenished each year, and only offers short term relief.
When asked the question,“Why are biotech companies working on their own virus resistant seeds if farmers are using a conventional virus resistant seed?", Village Volunteers advocate Caleb said, “Because they want farmers to buy their chemicals which are needed for their GM Seed for growth(Omolo, 2008)".
[edit] Conclusion
The major challenges that face Kenyan farmers are low rainfall, soil erosion, low soil fertility, low soil water holding capacity, lack of capital, pests and diseases, poor infrastructure, population pressure, destruction of wildlife habitats, poor prices of marketable products, and poor seed quality. Each of the farming methods discussed addresses some of these issues, but no method addresses most or all of these issues. None of these farming practices alone are sufficient to meet the food supplies of all of the starving people. Each method has areas of concern that need to be studied and tested before they are granted permission to be farmed in Africa.
[edit] The middle ground
AGRA, Alliamce for a Green Revolution in Africa (AGRA) which is …… Development of new crop varieties that will wiwthstand pests and disease, cope with drought, mariginal soils, and … the goal of AGRA is to “develop 1000 new varieties as rapidly as possible using conventional breeding methods” AGRA no longer supports GM’s, and have taken the stand that South Africa has, that they will try all forms of conventional and biotechnology, not including GM’s, before they resort to using the GM’s. With biotechnology, farmers can grow stronger better varieties of plants. Banana tissue samples are a great example of non-GM technology (AGRA, 2008).
In either case, the GM’s must undergo a global standardization of testing for long-term adversity, and there should be a policy in place that all information from the testing be made available to the public.
[edit] References
Alliance for a Green Revolution in Africa (2008). Websight. Retrieved May 22, 2008, from http://www.agra-alliance.org
Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation (2008). Agricultural Development. Retrieved April 16, 2008, from http:www.gatesfoundation.org/AgriculturalDevelopment
Black, R. (2004, August 9). Struggling to find GM's middle ground. Retrieved June 1, 2008, from http://news.bbc.co.uk/go/pr/fr/-2/hi/science/nature/3662616.stm
Gathura, Gatonye. Organic Consumers Association.Kenya: Monsanto’s GE Potato Fails in Africa. Retrieved May 4, 2008, from http://www.organicconsumers.org.ref
Geographical Distribution of Sweet Potato in Africa. Sweet Potato. Retrieved April 21, 2008, from http://www.infonet-biovision.org.
GM Watch (2008). Website. Retrieved April 18, 2008, from http://www.GMWatch.org
Hand, E. (2006, December 12 ). Biotech debate divides Africa . Knight Ridder Tribune Business News,Retrieved May 27, 2008, from ProQuest Database
Halweil, B. (1999). The Emperor’s New Crops. In T. A. Easton (Ed.), Taking Sides-Clashing Views on controversial Environmental Issues (11th ed., pp. 249-259). Dubuque, IA: McGraw Hill.
Harvest Plus (2008). Website. Retrieved April 17, 2008, from http://www.harvestplus.org
International Potato Center. Biological Weevil Control. Retrieved May 5, 2008, from http://www.cipotato.org.
Leahy, Stephen. Africa:Reinventing Agriculture. (2008, April 15). Retrieved April 21, 2008, from http://www.allafrica.com.
Macharia, Peter. Kenya National Report. (2004, July 29). Gateway to Land and Water Information. Retrieved April 21, 2008, from http://www.fao.org.
Mbogo, S. (2008, May 27). Debate on GM Crops Rages on as Bill Comes Under Scrutiny. Business Daily (Nairobi), Retrieved May 27, 2008, from ProQuest Database
Mitchell, Lorraine. USDA Issues In Food Security. Biotechnology and Food Security. Retrieved May 4, 2008, from http://www.USDA.gov.
Mwanda, C.O. Engineering Division, Ministry of Agriculture. (2000). A note on weed control in Machakos District, Kenya. Retrieved May 5, 2008, from http://atnesa.org.
Nel, Michelle. GM Potatoes rejected in Year of Potato. Retrieved May 1, 2008, from http://www.biosafetyafrica.net. The Case of Transgenic Sweet Potato in Kenya. Retrieved May 4, 2008, from http://www.ielrc.org.
Ogodo, Ochieng. GMO Africa. (2006, June 6). US Biotech Companies Urge Africa to Catch Up. Retrieved April 19, 2008, from http://www.gmoafrica.org.
Omolo, C. O. (2008, April 25). E-mail. Retrieved April 25, 2008, from jaratengodondi@gmail.com
Royal Society of London et al. (2000). Transgenic Plants and World Agriculture. In T. A. Easton (Ed.), Taking Sides-Clashing Views on Controversial Environmental Issues (11th ed., pp. 234-248). Dubue, IA: McGraw.
Vasilikiotis, Christos Ph.D. Energy Bulletin. (2001, January 31). Can Organic Farming “Feed the World?”: The legacy of Industrial Agriculture. Retrieved April 19, 2008, from http://www.energybulletin.net
