Environmental issues in the Niger Delta

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Key environmental issues in the Niger Delta of Nigeria relate to its oil industry.

The delta covers 20,000 km² within wetlands of 70,000 km² formed primarily by sediment deposition. Home to 20 million people and 40 different ethnic groups, this floodplain makes up 7.5% of Nigeria's total land mass. It is the largest wetland and maintains the third-largest drainage area in Africa. The Delta's environment can be broken down into four ecological zones: coastal barrier islands, mangrove swamp forests, freshwater swamps, and lowland rainforests. This incredibly well-endowed ecosystem, which contains one of the highest concentrations of biodiversity on the planet, in addition to supporting the abundant flora and fauna, arable terrain that can sustain a wide variety of crops, economic trees, and more species of freshwater fish than any ecosystem in West Africa. The region could experience a loss of 40% of its inhabitable terrain in the next thirty years as a result of extensive dam construction in the region. The carelessness of the oil industry has also precipiated this situation, which can perhaps be best encapsulated by a 1983 report issued by the NNPC in 1983, long before popular unrest surfaced:

We witnessed the slow poisoning of the waters of this country and the destruciton of vegetation and agricultural land by oil spills which occur during petroleum operations. But since the inception of the oil industry in Nigeria, more than twnety-five years ago, there has been no concerned and effective effort on the part of the government, let alone the oil operators, to control environmental problems associated with the industry.^[1]

Contents 1 Impact of oil industry on the environment 1.1 Oil spills 1.2 Impacts on Mangrove Forests 1.3 Impacts on fisheries 1.4 Natural gas flaring 2 See also 3 References

[edit] Impact of oil industry on the environment

[edit] Oil spills

See also: Oil spill

Oil spills in Nigeria occur due to a number of causes, they include: corrosion of pipelines and tankers (accounts for 50% of all spills), sabotage (28%), and oil production operations (21%, with 1% of the spills being accounted for by inadequate or non-functional production equipment. The largest contributor to the oil spill total, corrosion of pipes and tanks, is the rupturing or leaking of production infrastructures that are described as, "very old and lack regular inspection and maintenance".^[2] A reason that corrosion accounts for such a high percentage of all spills is that as a result of the small size of the oilfields in the Niger Delta, there is an extensive network of pipelines between the fields, as well as numerous small networks of flowlines—the narrow diameter pipes that carry oil from wellheads to flowstations—allowing many opportunities for leaks. In onshore areas, most pipelines and flowlines are laid above ground. Pipelines, which have an estimate life span of about fifteen years, are old and susceptible to corrosion. Many of the pipelines are as old as twenty to twenty-five years.^[3] Even Shell admits that "most of the facilities were constructed between the 1960s and early 1980s to the then prevailing standards. SPDC [Shell Petroleum and Development Company] would not build them that way today.”.^[4] Sabotage is performed primarily through what is known as "bunkering",whereby the saboteur attempts to tap the pipeline, and in the process of extraction sometimes the pipeline is damaged or destroyed. Oil extracted in this manner can often be sold for cash compensation.

Sabotage and oil siphoning has become a major issue in the Niger River Delta states as well, contributing to further environmental degradation.^[5] Damaged lines may go unnoticed for days, and repair of the damaged pipes take even longer. Oil siphoning has become a big business, with the stolen oil quickly making its way onto the black market.^[6] While the popularity of selling stolen oil increases, the bodies are piling up. In late December 2006, more than 200 people were killed in the Lagos region of Nigeria in an oil line explosion.^[7] The 2006 explosion started after the oil line was tapped by people siphoning the oil, with intentions of black market resale.^[8]

The Nigerian National Petroleum Corporation places the quantity of oil jettisoned into the environment yearly at 2,300 cubic meters with an average of 300 individual spills annually.^[3] However, because this amount does not take into "minor" spills, the World Bank argues that the true quantity of oil spilled into the environment could be as much as ten times the officially claimed amount.^[9]. Among the largest individual spills include the blowout of a Texaco offshore station which in 1980 dumped an estimated 400 million barrels (64,000,000 m³) of crude into the Gulf of Guinea and Shell's Forcados Terminal tank failure which produced a spillage estimated at 580 million barrels (92,000,000 m³).^[2] One source projects that the total amount oil in barrels spilled between 1960 and 1997 is upwards of 100 million barrels (16,000,000 m³).^[9]

Oil spillage has a major impact on the ecosystem into which it is released. Immense tracts of the mangrove forests, which are especially susceptible to oil (this is mainly because it is stored in the soil and re-released annually with inundation), have been destroyed. An estimated 5 to 10% of Nigerian mangrove ecosystems have been wiped out either by settlement or oil. The rainforest which previously occupied some 7,400 km² of land has disappeared as well.^[3]

Spills in populated areas often spread out over a wide area, taking out crops and aquacultures through contamination of the groundwater and soils. Though the consumption of dissolved oxygen by bacteria feeding on the spilled hydrocarbons also contributes to the death of fishes. In agricultural communities, often a year's supply of food can be destroyed by which, because of the careless nature of oil operations in the Delta, will cause the environment to grow increasingly uninhabitable.

[edit] Impacts on Mangrove Forests

Vegetation in the Niger River Delta is comprised of extensive mangrove forests, brackish swamp forests, and rainforests. The large expanses of mangrove forests are estimated to cover approximately 5,000 to 8,580 km² of land.^[10] Mangroves remain very important to the indigenous people of Nigeria as well as the various organisms that inhabit these ecosystems.

Poor land management upstream from human impacts coupled with the constant pollution of oil has caused five to ten percent of these mangrove forests to disappear. Both the volatile, quickly penetrating, and viscous properties of oil have wiped out areas of vegetation. When spills occur close to and within the drainage basin, the hydrologic powers of both the river and tides force spilled oil to move up into communities of vegetation.

Mangrove forests are included in a highly complex trophic system. If oil directly affects any organism within an ecosystem, it can indirectly affect a host of other organisms.^[11] These floral communities rely on nutrient cycling, clean water, sunlight, and proper substrate. With ideal conditions they offer habitat structure, and input of energy via photosynthesis to the organisms they interact with. The effects of oil spills on mangroves are known to acidify the soils, halt cellular respiration, and starve roots of vital oxygen.^[12]

An area of mangroves that has been destroyed by oil may be susceptible to other problems. These areas may not be suitable for any native plant growth until the bacteria and microorganisms can remediate the conditions. A particular species of mangrove, Rhizophora racemosa lives higher in the delta system.^[13] As the soils supporting R. racemosa become too toxic, a non-native invasive species of palm, Nypa fruticans, quickly colonizes the area. This invasive species has a shallower root system that destabilizes the banks among the waterways, further impacting sediment distribution lower in the delta system. N. fruticans also impedes navigation and decreases overall biodiversity. In places where N. fruticans has invaded, communities are investigating how the palm can be used by local people.^[14]

The loss of mangrove forests is not only degrading life for plants and animals, but for humans as well.^[15] These systems are highly valued by the indigenous people living in the affected areas. Mangroves forests have been a major source of wood for local individuals. They also are important to a variety of species vital to subsistence practices for local indigenous groups, which unfortunately see little to none of the economic benefits of oil. Mangroves also provide essential habitat for rare and endangered species like the manatee and pygmy hippopotamus. Poor policy decisions regarding the allocation of oil revenue has caused political unrest in Nigeria.^[16] This clash among governing bodies, oil corporations, and the people of Nigeria has resulted in sabotage to oil pipelines, further exacerbating the threat to mangrove forests.

The future for mangrove forests and other floral communities is not all negative. Local and outside groups have provided funds and labor to remediate and restore the destroyed mangrove swamps. The federal government of Nigeria established The Niger Delta Development Commission (NDDC) in 2000 which aims to suppress the environmental and ecological impacts oil has had in the region. Governmental and non governmental organizations have also utilized technology to identify the source and movement of oil spills.^[17]

Biological remediation

The use of biological remediation has also been implemented in areas of the delta to detoxify and restore ecosystems damaged by oil spills. Bio-remediation essentially involves biological components in the remediation or clean up of a specific site. A study conducted in Ogbogu located in one of the largest oil producing regions of Nigeria has utilized two plant species to clean up spills.^[18] The first stage of cleanup involves Hibiscus cannabinus, a plant species indigenous to West Africa. H. cannabinus is an annual herbaceous plant originally used for pulp production. This species has high rates of absorbency and can be laid down on top of the water to absorb oil. The oil saturated plant material is then removed and sent to a safe location where the hydrocarbons can be broken down and detoxified by microorganisms. The second stage of bioremediation involves a plant known as Vetiveria zizanioides, a perennial grass species. V. zizanioides has a deep fibrous root network that can both tolerate chemicals in the soil and can also detoxify soils through time requiring little maintenance. The people of Ogbogu hope to use these methods of bioremediation to improve the quality of drinking water, soil conditions, and the health of their surrounding environment.^[19]

Within the Imo State of Nigeria, a study was conducted in the city of Egbema to determine the micro floral communities present at the site of an oil spill.^[20] These microorganisms have the ability to break down the chemical properties of oil therefore decreasing the toxic conditions. This is recognized as another method of bioremediation and scientists are trying to determine weather the properties these microorganisms possess, can be utilized for the clean up of future spills.^[21]

However bleak this situation may seem for the Niger Delta region there are clearly alternatives that can be implemented to save it from future contamination. Satellite imagery combined with the use of Geographical Information Systems (GIS) can be put to work to quickly to identify and track spilled oil.^[22] To hasten the cleanup of spills regional clean up sites along the problem areas could help contain spills more quickly.

To make these tasks feasible more funding must be provided by the stakeholders of the oil industry. Non governmental organizations will keep fighting the damaging effects of oil, but will not win the battle alone.^[23]

[edit] Impacts on fisheries

The fishing industry is an essential part of Nigeria’s sustainability because it provides much needed protein and nutrients for people, but with the higher demand on fishing, their populations are declining. Fish populations are being depleted faster than they are able to restore their number. They are not given enough time for the populations to regenerate and sustain the demand that has been put on them. Fishing needs to be limited along the Niger River and aquacultures should be created to provide for the growing demand on the fishing industry. Aquaculture allows for fish to be farmed for production and provide more jobs for the local people of Nigeria.

Over fishing is not the only impact on marine communities, climate change, habitat loss, and pollution are all added pressures to these important ecosystems. The banks of the Niger River are desirable and ideal locations for people to settle. The River provides water for drinking, bathing, cleaning, and fishing for both the dinner table and trading to make a profit. As the people have settled along the shores of the rivers and coasts, marine and terrestrial habitats are being lost and ecosystems are being drastically changed. The shoreline along the Niger River is important in maintaining the temperature of the water because the slightest change in the water temperature could be fatal to certain marine species. Trees and shrubs provide shade and habitat for marine species, while reducing fluctuation in water temperature.^[24]

The Niger River is an important ecosystem that needs to be protected, for it is home to 36 families and nearly 250 species of fish, of which 20 are endemic, meaning they are found no where else on Earth.^[25] With the loss of habitat and the climate getting warmer, ever little temperature degree is necessary to maintain some of the marine environments. Other than restoring habitat we can also reduce pollution. Problems such as pesticides from agricultural fields could be reduced if a natural pesticide was used or the fields were moved farther away from the local waterways. Oil pollution can be lowered as well; if spills were reduced then habitat and environmental impacts could be minimized. By limiting the devastation caused by disturbances to the marine environment, such as pollution, over fishing, and habitat loss, the productivity and biodiversity of the marine ecosystems would increase. Invasive species, species that invade and take over an area limiting or reducing the biodiversity, can out compete native species, changing the dynamic of the environment.

Water Hyacinth

Water Hyacinth is an invasive species that was introduced into Africa as an ornamental plant, which thrives in polluted environments. Water Hyacinth has the capability to complete handicap the waterways in which it grows, making it nearly impossible to navigate fishing boats.^[26] In recent years it has found its way into the Niger River choking out both sunlight and oxygen to the marine organisms that live there. Sunlight is a source of energy that is exchanged throughout the marine environment thru consumption. Plants and plankton create energy from the sun thru photosynthesis; these organisms are then consumed by animals transferring some of their stored energy to their predators. When a species such as Water Hyacinth makes its way into the ecosystem, it can disrupt and compete with other native plants for sunlight, diminishing the energy resource within the marine environment. With the loss of energy some populations will not be able to survive, or their numbers may drop beyond a point of return, creating a threatened environment. Added to the loss of energy, water hyacinth also takes up and depletes the water of oxygen which is essential to the livelihood of all marine organisms.

[edit] Natural gas flaring

See also: Gas flare

Nigeria flares more natural gas associated with oil extraction than any other country on the planet, with estimates suggesting that of the 3.5 billion cubic feet (100,000,000 m³) of associated gas (AG) produced annually, 2.5 billion cubic feet (70,000,000 m³), or about 70% is wasted via flaring. This equals about 25% of the UK's total natural gas consumption, and is the equivalent to 40% of the entire African continent's gas consumption in 2001. All statistical data associated with gas flaring is notoriously unreliable, but AG wasted during flaring is estimated to cost Nigeria US $2.5 billion on a yearly basis.^[27]

The reason for this practice, which is generally agreed world-wide to be wasteful both economically and environmentally, is that in order to maximize production of crude oil, the associated gas accompanying it is often burned off. Even though companies operating in Nigeria also harvest natural gas for commercial purposes, they prefer to extract natural gas from deposits where it is found in isolation, this isolated gas is known as non-associated gas. This occurs because it is costly to separate commercially viable associated gas from the oil. Therefore the AG found with oil is often burned off, in order to increase crude production.

Historically, gas flaring began simultaneously with oil extraction in the 1960s by Shell-BP. Although, the British government subsequently acknowledged that the flaring was unacceptable, it was allowed to continue without any real efforts to change infrastructure and prevent the waste of the gas. This is in contrast to Britain's policies on gas flaring in their own territory, where gas flaring has been reduced to a minimum.

In fact, in western Europe 99% of associated gas is used or re-injected into the ground. Gas flaring is generally discouraged and condemned by the international community, as it contributes greatly to climate change. Which ironically can display its most devastating effects in developing countries like Nigeria, and particularly in the semi-arid Sahel regions of sub-Saharan Africa. The Niger Delta's low-lying plains are also quite vulnerable as they lie only a few meters above sea-level.

Along with gas re-injection, another alternative solution to burning the excess material is nationally using the gas as an energy source. If it was properly stored, the material could also be utilized for other community projects. Unfortunetly, it is much cheaper to simply burn the material off, despite the consequences.^[28]

Along with the inefficiency of gas flaring, another problem gas flaring poses is the release of large amounts of methane, which has very high global warming potential. The methane is accompanied by the other major greenhouse gas, carbon dioxide, of which Nigeria was estimated to have emitted more than 34.38 metric tons of in 2002, accounting for about 50% of all industrial emissions in the country and 30% of the total CO2 emissions. As flaring in the west has been minimized, in Nigeria it has grown proportionally with oil production.^[29]. The volume of associated gas produced and therefore burnt off, is directly linked to the amount of oil produced. So even though the percentage of gas flared from 92% in 1981 has fallen to around 70%, the overall amount of flared gas has increased from 2.1 billion to 2.5 billion cubic feet (60,000,000 m³ to 70,000,000 m³).

It seems that the international community, the Nigerian government, and the oil corporations are all in agreement that gas flaring has a negative impact and needs to be stopped. However, in reality, efforts at stemming gas flaring have been slow to be implemented. The practice of gas flaring as it has been allowed since oil production began under British, has become set in stone, and would be costly to overhaul to reduce flaring. As a result, little is done by oil companies. This is in spite of the fact that gas flaring in Nigeria has technically been illegal since 1984 under section 3 of the "Associated Gas Reinjection Act". However, none of the regulations stipulated by this document have ever been made public.

OPEC and Shell, the biggest flarer of natural gas in Nigeria, alike claim that only 50% of all associated gas are burnt off via flaring at present. However, this statistic is accepted by few. The World Bank reported in 2004 that, "Nigeria currently flares 75% of the gas it produces."^[29]. While other sources make similar projections, between 70 and 75% is the generally accepted percentile of gas flared.^[29].

Gas flares can have potentially harmful effects on the health and livelihood of the communities in their vicinity, as they release a variety of poisonous chemicals. Just some of combustion by-products include nitrogen dioxides, sulphur dioxide, volatile organic compounds like benzene, toluene, xylene and hydrogen sulfide, as well as carcinogens like benzapyrene and dioxin. Humans exposed to such substances can suffer from a variety of respiratory problems, which have been reported amongst many children in the Delta but have apparently gone uninvestigated. These chemicals can aggravate asthma, cause breathing difficulties and pain, as well as chronic bronchitis. Of particular note is that the chemical benzene, which is known to be emitted from gas flares in undocumented quantities, is well researched as being a causative agent for leukemia and other blood-related diseases. A study done by Climate Justice estimates that exposure to benzene would result in eight new cases of cancer yearly in Bayelsa State alone.^[29].

Often gas flares are located close to local communities, and regularly lack adequate fencing or protection for villagers who may risk nearing the tremendous heat of the flare in order to carry out their daily activities. Many of these communities claim that nearby flares cause acid rain which corrodes their homes and other local structures, many of which have zinc based roofing. Some people resort to the use of asbestos based material, which is stronger in repelling acid rain detioration. Unfortunetly, this only contributes to their own declining health and the health of their environment.^[30][31] Asbestos is said to be “the name of a group of similar minerals with separable, long, and thin fibers.^[32]” Asbestos is harmful when the fibers are in the air and are inhaled by human beings. After the fibers are inhaled, it is extremely difficult to get them out of the lungs. Long-term exposure to asbestos can cause fiber accumulation, which leads to scarring of the lung tissue and inflammation.^[33] Asbestos exposure increases the risk of forming lung cancer, mesothelioma, and asbestosis.

Whether or not flares contribute to acid rain is debatable, as some independent studies conducted have found that the sulphur dioxide and nitrous oxide content of most flares was insufficient to establish a link between flaring and acid rain. Other studies from U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA) report that gas flaring is, "major contributor to air pollution and acid rain".

Flares which are often older and inefficient are rarely relocated away from villages, and are known to coat the land and communities in the area with soot and damage adjacent vegetation. Almost no vegetation can grow in the area directly surrounding the flare due to the tremendous heat it produces.^[3]

In November of 2005 a judgement by, "the Federal High Court of Nigeria ordered that gas flaring must stop in a Niger Delta community as it violates guaranteed constitutional rights to life and dignity. In a case brought against the Shell Petroleum Development Company of Nigeria (Shell), Justice C. V. Nwokorie ruled in Benin City that the damaging and wasteful practice of flaring cannot lawfully continue."

[edit] See also

• Nigeria
• Petroleum in Nigeria
• Conflict in the Niger Delta

[edit] References

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