Emperor of China
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| Emperor of China | ||
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 Flag of the Qing Dynasty |
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| Qin Shi Huang the first Emperor of Unified China | ||
| First emperor | Qin Shi Huang | |
| Last emperor | Puyi | |
| Emperorship started | 221 BCE | |
| Emperorship ended | February 12, 1912 AD | |
The Emperor of China (Chinese: 皇帝; pinyin: Huángdì) refers to any sovereign of Imperial China reigning since the founding of the Qin Dynasty in 221 BC until the fall of the Qing Dynasty in 1912. When referred to as the Son of Heaven (天子), a title created in the late Shang dynasty, the Emperor was recognized as the ruler of "All under heaven" (i.e., the world). In practice not every Emperor was the holder of the highest power of his land, though this was largely the case.
Most of China's imperial rulers have commonly been considered members of the Han ethnicity, although recent scholarship tends to be careful about the dangers of applying current ethnic categories to historical situations. During the Yuan and Qing dynasties China was ruled by ethnic Mongolians and Manchurians respectively. A prominent historical view over the years sees these dynasties as non-native dynasties that were sinicized over time, while more recent writers argue that the interaction between politics and ethnicity was far more complex.[1]
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[edit] Origin and history
The pre-Qin monarchs were called Wang (王), roughly translated as King. In 221 BC, after the then King of Qin completed the conquest of the various kingdoms of the Warring States, he adopted a new title to reflect his prestige as a ruler greater than the kings before him. He created the new title Huangdi or "Emperor", and styled himself Shi Huangdi, the First Emperor. Before this, Huang (皇) and Di (帝) were the titles of several pre-historical leaders.
Chinese political theory does not outright discourage or prevent the rule of non-royals or foreigners under the title of the "Emperor of China". Historically, China has been divided numerous times into smaller kingdoms under separate rulers or warlords. The Emperor in most cases was the ruler of a united China, or must at least claim legitimate rule over all of China if they do not have de facto control. There have been a number of instances where there has been more than one "Emperor of All China" simultaneously in Chinese history. For example, various Ming Dynasty princes continued to claim the title after the founding of the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911), and Wu Sangui claimed the title during the Kangxi Emperor's reign. In dynasties founded by foreign conquering tribes who eventually found themselves immersed into Chinese culture, politics, and society, the rulers would also take on the title of Emperor of China in addition to whatever titles they may have had from their original homeland. The most prominent example is Kublai Khan, who was both Great Khan of the Mongols and the Emperor of China.
[edit] Position and power
Since the Qin Dynasty, the Emperor of China was formally called the Son of Heaven (天子), and as the descendant and representative of Heaven on Earth, he legally had absolute power over all matters, big or small, under Heaven (天下). His mandate to rule is thought to be divine and predestined. In contrast to modern international relationships, the Emperor of China was seen in East Asia not merely as the head of one nation-state among many, but rather as the overlord of the entire civilized world, meaning there could only be one legitimate emperor in the world at any given time.
The emperor's words and directives were considered sacred edicts (聖旨), and his directions from writing are considered "directives from above" (上諭). In theory, the emperor's orders were to be followed with immediate obedience. He was elevated above all commoners, nobility, and members of the imperial family. Addresses to the emperor were always to be formal and self-deprecatory, even by the closest of family members.
In practice, however, the power of the emperor varied between different emperors and different dynasties. Generally, in the Chinese dynastic cycle, Emperors founding a dynasty usually consolidated the empire through absolute rule, as evidenced in Emperors Shihuang of the Qin Dynasty, Taizong of the Tang Dynasty, Kublai Khan of the Yuan Dynasty, and Kangxi of the Qing Dynasty. These emperors ruled as absolute monarchs throughout their reign, maintaining a centralized grip on the country. During the Song Dynasty, the Emperor's power was significantly overshadowed by the power of the chancellor.
The Emperor's position, unless deposed in a rebellion, is always hereditary usually by agnatic primogeniture. As a result, there are many cases where a child Emperor ascends the throne when his father dies. When this occurs, the Empress Dowager, or the Emperor's mother, is in a position of significant power. In fact, the vast majority of female rulers during the entirety of Chinese Imperial history has come to power through ruling as regents on behalf of their sons; prominent examples include the Empress Lü of the Han Dynasty, as well as Empress Dowager Cixi and Empress Dowager Ci'an of the Qing Dynasty, who for a time ruled jointly as co-regents. If the Empress Dowager is unable to, or is too weak to assume power, court officials usually seize control. The presence of eunuchs in the court is also important in the power structure, as the Emperor usually relied on a few eunuchs as confidants, and they had access to many court documents; there are cases where eunuchs wielded absolute power, most prominent was the rule of eunuch Wei Zhongxian during the Ming Dynasty. The only other scenario is when the nobility or other family members assume power as regents. In addition, the effective area ruled by the Emperor of China varied from dynasty to dynasty. In some cases, such as during the Southern Song dynasty, political power in East Asia was effectively split among several governments, however the political fiction that the head of one of these states was the legitimate emperor to which the other states owed allegiance was maintained.
[edit] Heredity and succession
The title of emperor was hereditary, traditionally passed on from father to son in each dynasty. There are also instances where the throne is passed onto a younger brother, should the deceased Emperor have no male offspring. By convention in most dynasties, the eldest son born to the Empress (嫡長子) succeeded the throne. In some cases when the empress did not bear any children, she adopted a son as her own (all children of the emperor were said to also be the children of the empress, regardless of birth mother). In some dynasties the succession of the empress' eldest son was disputed, and because many emperors had large numbers of progeny, often led to wars of succession between rival sons. In attempts to resolve disputes after death, the emperor often designated a Crown Prince (太子) in early times. Even such a clear designation, however, caused problems within the imperial family involving jealousy and distrust, whether it was the crown prince plotting against the emperor, or brothers plotting against each other, and did not actually ensure a peaceful succession. Some emperors, like the Yongzheng Emperor, after abolishing the position of Crown Prince, placed the succession papers in a sealed box, only to be opened and announced after his death.
Unlike, for example, the Japanese monarchy, Chinese political theory allowed for a change of dynasty as ruling houses could be replaced. This was based on the concept of the Confucian "Mandate of Heaven". The theory behind this was that the Chinese emperor acted as the "Son of Heaven." As the only legitimate ruler, his authority extended to "all under heaven" and had neighbors only in a geographical sense. He held a mandate to which he had a valid claim to rule over everyone else in the world--as long as he served the people well. If the ruler became immoral, or other natural disasters such as repeated flood or famine showed that the mandate of heaven may have expired, then rebellion was justified and heaven would take away that mandate and give it to another. This important concept legitimized the dynastic cycle or the change of dynasties.
This principle, together with the examination system, made it possible for even peasants to found a new dynasty, such as Han and Ming, or conquest dynasties such as the Mongol-led Yuan Dynasty and Manchu-led Qing Dynasty. It was moral integrity and benevolent leadership that determined the holder of the "Mandate of Heaven." Every dynasty self-consciously adopted this administrative practice, which powerfully reinforced this Sinocentric concept throughout the history of imperial China. Historians noted that this was one of the key reasons why imperial China in many ways had the most efficient system of government in ancient times.
In the history of China there had only been one lawful reigning empress, Empress Wu of the Tang dynasty or the Wu-Zhou dynasty founded by her. Many females, however, did become de facto leaders, usually as Empress Dowager. Prominent examples include Empress Dowager Cixi, mother of the Tongzhi Emperor (1861-1874), and aunt and adoptive mother of the Guangxu Emperor (1874-1908), who ruled China for 47 years (1861-1908), and the Empress Dowager Lü of the Han Dynasty.
[edit] Styles, names and forms of address
To see naming conventions in detail, please refer to Chinese sovereign
As the emperor had, by law, a high position challenged by no one else, his subjects were to show the utmost respect in his presence, whether in direct conversation or otherwise. In a conversation with the emperor, it was considered a crime to compare oneself to the emperor in any way. It was taboo to refer to the emperor by his given name, even if it came from his own mother, who instead was to use Huangdi (Emperor), or simply Er ("son"). The emperor was never to be addressed as you. Anyone who spoke to the emperor was to address him as Bixia (陛下), corresponding to "Your Imperial Majesty", Huang Shang (皇上, lit. Emperor Above or Emperor Highness), tian zi (天子, lit. the son of heaven ), or Sheng Shang (聖上, lit. the Divine Above or the Holy Highness). Servants often addressed the emperor as Wan Sui Ye (萬歲爺, lit. Lord of Ten Thousand Years). The emperor referred to himself as Zhen (朕), translated into the royal "We", in front of his subjects, a practice reserved solely for the emperor.
Contrary to the Western convention of referring to a sovereign using a reign name (e.g. George V) or by a personal name (e.g. Queen Victoria), a governing emperor was to be referred to as simply Huangdi Bixia (皇帝陛下, His Majesty the Emperor) or Dangjin Huangshang (當今皇上, The Imperial Highness of the Present Time) when spoken about in the third person. He was usually styled His Imperial Majesty the Emperor of the Great [X] Dynasty, Son of Heaven, Lord of Ten Thousand Years. His styles varied considerably during the Yuan and Qing Dynasties.
An emperor also ruled with an era name (年號). Since the adoption of era name by Emperor Wu of Han up until the Ming Dynasty, the sovereign conventionally changed the era name on a semi-regular basis during his reign. During the Ming and Qing Dynasties, emperors simply chose one era name for their entire reign, and people often referred to past emperors with that title. In earlier dynasties, the emperors were known with a temple name (廟號) given after their death. All emperors were also given a posthumous name (謚號), which was sometimes combined with the temple name (e.g. Emperor Shengzuren 聖祖仁皇帝 for Kangxi). The passing of an emperor was referred to as jiabeng (駕崩, lit. "collapse") and an emperor that had just died is referred to as Daxing Huangdi (大行皇帝).
[edit] Family
The imperial family was made up of the emperor as the head and the empress (皇后) as the primary consort and Mother of the Nation (國母). In addition, the emperor had a series of other consorts and concubines (妃嬪) divided in a system of ranks who made up the harem, of which the empress was the leader. Every dynasty had its set of rules regarding the numerical make up of the harem. During the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911), for example, imperial convention dictated that at any given time there should be one Empress, one Huang Guifei, two Guifei, four fei and six pin, in addition to an unlimited number of other consorts and concubines. Although the emperor had the highest status by law, by tradition and precedent the mother of the emperor, i.e., the Empress Dowager (皇太后), usually received the greatest respect in the palace and was the decision maker in most family affairs, and at times, especially when a young emperor was on the throne, became the de facto ruler. The emperor's children, the princes (王子) and princesses (公主), were often referred to by their order of birth, e.g., Eldest Prince, Third Princess, etc. The princes were often given titles of peerage once they reached adulthood. The emperor's brothers and uncles served in court by law, with the status of any other court official (子), and the emperor was always elevated above them despite any chronological or generational superiority.
[edit] See also
