Eastern Fleet

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Eastern Fleet/East Indies Fleet
Active 1941-1971
Country United Kingdom
Branch Royal Navy
Nickname "Forgotten Fleet"
Engagements Loss of Prince of Wales and Repulse
Indian Ocean raid
Battle of Madagascar
Operation Dukedom
Commanders
Notable
commanders		 James Somerville
Bruce Fraser

The British Eastern Fleet (also known as the East Indies Fleet and the Far East Fleet) was a fleet of the Royal Navy during World War II and post war until 1971. The Eastern Fleet was formed by order of the Admiralty on 8 December 1941 [1] from the ships of the China Station and the East Indies Station, with its Headquarters in Singapore. During the war, it included many ships and personnel from other navies, including the Royal Netherlands Navy, Royal Australian Navy, the Royal New Zealand Navy and the United States Navy. Post-war, the Eastern Fleet became the Far East Fleet and operated in all Far East areas including parts of the Pacific Ocean.

Contents

[edit] Background

Until World War II, the Indian Ocean had been a British "lake". It was ringed by significant British and Commonwealth possessions and much of the strategic supplies needed in peace and war had to pass across it: Persian oil, Malayan rubber, Indian tea, Australian and New Zealand foodstuffs. In war, Britain relied upon the loyalty and manpower of Australia and New Zealand and these had to be transported. Safe passage for British cargo ships was critical.

Despite this, the British Royal Navy had tended to station its older ships in the east and use the China Station and the Far East Station as a source of reinforcements for other theatres. Even when gravely threatened, the Eastern Fleet largely consisted of older capital ships too slow and vulnerable to be of use in the Atlantic or Mediterranean.

At the outbreak of war (as in World War I), the German Navy (Kriegsmarine) used auxiliary cruisers (converted merchant ships) and the Pocket Battleship Graf Spee to both threaten the sea lanes and tie down the British Royal Navy. In mid-1940, Italy declared war and the Italian vessels based in Italian East Africa posed a threat to the supply routes through the Red Sea. Worse was to come when the Japanese declared war in December 1941 and, after Pearl Harbor, the sinking of Prince of Wales and Repulse, and the occupation of Malaya, Singapore, and the Dutch East Indies, there was an aggressive threat from the east.

This became reality when an overwhelming Japanese naval force operated in the eastern Indian Ocean, sinking an aircraft carrier, other warships and disrupting freight traffic along the Indian east coast. At this stage, the Chief of the Imperial General Staff, General Sir Alan Brooke wrote:

We were hanging by our eyelids! Australia and India were threatened by the Japanese, we had temporarily lost control of the Indian Ocean, the Germans were threatening Iran and our oil, Auchinleck was in precarious straits in the desert, and the submarine sinkings were heavy.

The fear was that a concerted Japanese stroke could chase the Royal Navy from the Indian Ocean, with dire implications for India, and that German success in the Caucasus and in Egypt would threaten the Persian Gulf.

[edit] Early war years

Until 1941, the main threat to British interests in the region was the presence of German commerce raiders (auxiliary cruisers) and submarines. The fleet had trade protection as its first priority and was required to escort convoys and eliminate the raiders. The Germans had converted merchant ships to act as commerce raiders and allocated supply ships to maintain them. The location and destruction of these German raiders consumed much British naval effort until the last raider - Michel - was sunk in June 1943.

On 10 June 1940, the entry of Italy into the war introduced a new threat to the oil supply routes from the Persian Gulf, through the Red Sea, to Mediterranean Sea. Forces of the Italian Royal Navy (Regia Marina) in the Red Sea, Indian Ocean, and the western Pacific Ocean consisted of destroyers, submarines, and a small number of armed merchantmen. The Italians controlled ports in Italian East Africa and Tiensin, China. The majority of the Italian vessels were based at the port of Massawa in Eritrea. The vessels located in Massawa were part of the Italian Red Sea Flotilla. This unit consisted primarily of seven destroyers and eight submarines. During the course of 1940, the Red Sea Flotilla lost four submarines and one destroyer during early attempts to intercept British convoys in the Red Sea.

The Italian naval forces in East Africa were caught in a vice. To put to sea invited a heavy British reaction, while to stay in port was impossible. In 1941, during the East African Campaign, the British and Commonwealth forces first threatened the East African ports and then captured them. The Italians attempted to break out to German-occupied Europe, to the Vichy French colony of Madagascar, to Japan, to Tiensen, China, or to any other neutral port where they might find refuge.

As the East African ports were captured, there were some breakout attempts that were successful. Four Italian submarines successfully navigated to Bordeaux, two out of three of the Italian armed merchantmen reached Kobe, Japan, and a few other vessels made it to other Axis-friendly ports. But the rest of the Italian vessels in East Africa were captured, sunk, or scuttled. Six Italian destroyers attempted to attack Port Suez and Port Sudan. But, instead, all six destroyers were lost due to a combination of British air and sea forces and scuttling by their own crews. In actions against the Italians, the Eastern Fleet lost two destroyers and a sloop.

The Eastern Fleet also supported British and Commonwealth ground forces in their actions in Iraq (Operation Sabine) and Iran (Operation Countenance).

[edit] Singapore

Before the fall of Singapore, the Eastern Fleet's naval base at Singapore was part of the British Far East Command.

British Far East defence planning was based on assumptions. The first assumption was that the United States would remain as an effective ally in the western Pacific Ocean, with a fleet based at Singapore, and that the Philippines would be available as a forward base for British warships.[2] Secondly, it was assumed that the technical capabilities and aggression of the Imperial Japanese Navy were over-estimated. In these circumstances, with the Japanese fleet engaged by the United States Navy (USN), the Admiralty sent the four obsolescent Revenge class battleships to Singapore to provide defensive fire-power and a British presence. The British assumptions were destroyed on 7 December 1941: the impact of the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor denied substantial USN support to the British defence of the "Malay barrier" and made impossible the relief of American garrisons in the Philippines. Furthermore, Japanese capabilities exceeded expectations.

After the fall of France in June 1940, Japanese pressure on the Vichy authorities in French Indochina resulted in the granting of base and transit rights, albeit with significant restrictions. Despite this, in September 1940, the Japanese launched an invasion of French Indochina. The bases thus acquired in Indochina allowed extended Japanese air coverage of the invasion forces bound for Malaya and for the Dutch East Indies. In these circumstances, the Prince of Wales and Repulse were vulnerable to concerted air attacks from the Japanese bases in Indochina and, without air cover, they were sunk in December 1941. The modern aircraft carrier HMS Indomitable had been intended to be part of the squadron, but accidental damage prevented this. It's unlikely that the limited naval air cover thus available would have protected the squadron and the Invincible might also have been a loss.

After the sinking of Prince of Wales and Repulse and the death of Admiral Sir Tom Phillips, Admiral Sir Geoffrey Layton assumed command of the Eastern Fleet. The fleet withdrew first to Java and, following the Fall of Singapore, to Trincomalee, Ceylon (now Sri Lanka). In March 1942, Admiral Sir James Somerville arrived in Ceylon and assumed command from Layton.

[edit] Indian Ocean retreat

When Admiral Somerville inspected the base at Trincomalee, its deficiencies were clear to him. He found the port inadequate, vulnerable to a determined attack, and open to spying. An isolated island base with a safe, deep anchorage in a suitably strategic position was required. Addu Atoll met the requirements and it was secretly developed as a fleet anchorage. Once available, the facilities at Addu Atoll were used extensively by the Royal Navy.

The Eastern Fleet was divided into two: Force A and Force B. Force A comprised of the modernised HMS Warspite and the two available fleet aircraft carriers.[3] Force B was based on the slow Revenge class battleships, based at the fleet's new operational base at Kilindini near Mombasa in Kenya and relatively safe from the Japanese fleet. Neither individually nor together could the two Eastern Fleet forces challenge a determined Japanese naval assault.

Following the Japanese capture of the Andaman Islands, the main elements of the Fleet retreated to Addu Atoll in Maldives. Then, following Chuichi Nagumo's Indian Ocean raid in early 1942, the Fleet moved its operational base to Kilindini near Mombasa in Kenya, as their more forward fleet anchorages could not be adequately protected from Japanese attack. The fleet in the Indian Ocean was then gradually reduced to little more than a convoy escort force as other commitments called for the more modern powerful ships.

In May 1942, the Eastern Fleet supported the invasion of Madagascar, Operation Ironclad. This was an operation aimed at thwarting any attempt by Japanese vessels to use naval bases on the Vichy French controlled territory. During the invasion, vessels of the Eastern Fleet were confronted by vessels of the French Navy (two armed merchant cruisers, two sloops, and five submarines) and submarines of the Imperial Japanese Navy (I-10, I-16, I-18, and I-20 and midget submarines M-16b and M-20b).

[edit] Indian Ocean strikes

After the departure of the main battle forces during February 1944, the Indian Ocean was left with mostly escort carriers and older battleships as the core of its naval forces. Allied advances in the Mediterranean and northern Europe during 1943 and 1944, however, released naval resources. As a result, more British aircraft carriers entered the area; plus the battlecruiser HMS Renown, battleships Howe, Queen Elizabeth, Valiant and supporting warships.

Preparations were put in hand for a more aggressive stance in the Indian Ocean and for British naval participation in the Pacific theatre. Agreement had been reached, after objections from Admiral Ernest King, but new procedures would need to be learnt by naval crews and Fleet Air Arm (FAA) aircrew. To this end, Operation Diplomat, a training exercise, took place in late March, 1944. The objective was for the fleet to rendezvous with a group of tankers (escorted by HNLMS Tromp) and practice refuelling at sea procedures. They then rendezvoused with United States Navy Task Force 58.5, the USS Saratoga and three destroyers, and returned to Trincomalee on 31 March. The U.S. task force had been detached to the Indian Ocean to bolster local air defences and also to impart necessary procedures to (FAA aircrew), which was done over two or three days' intensive activity at sea. Sources for the dates of return to Trincomalee and the joint US/UK training differ.)

Admiral King then requested that, during April, the Eastern Fleet should engage Japanese forces in their area and hold them there to reduce the opposition to an American seaborne assault on Hollandia (now Jayapura) and Aitape on the north coast of Netherlands New Guinea. An airborne attack by the Eastern Fleet (including Task Force 58.5) on Sabang, off Sumatra was executed (Operation Cockpit). Surprise was achieved: military and oil installations were heavily damaged by the attacks, aggravating Japanese fuel shortages. The American involvement was extended to capitalise on the success with a second attack, this time on Surabaya, eastern Java, on 17 May (Operation Transom). The distances for this operation necessitated replenishment at sea. Again, the defenders were unprepared and significant damage was made to port, military and oil infrastructure. After this, on 18 May, Saratoga and her destroyers returned to the Pacific after what Admiral Somerville called "a profitable and very happy association of Task Group 58.5 with the Eastern Fleet".

At the end of August 1944, Admiral Somerville was relieved as Commander-in-Chief Eastern Fleet by Admiral Sir Bruce Fraser, former Commander-in-Chief Home Fleet. Somerville had been Commander-in-Chief Eastern Fleet since March 1942. During this time, there had been friction between him and the Supreme Allied Commander South East Asia Theatre, Louis Mountbatten. The need for an influential military representative in Washington provided the opportunity for a change. Fraser later transferred his flag to the newly-formed British Pacific Fleet on 22 November 1944.

By this time, the Eastern Fleet included ships from Britain, Australia, New Zealand, the Netherlands and France, and became the East Indies Fleet.

A further series of strikes were made against targets in Sumatra including Operation Crimson, the bombardment of the Japanese naval base at Sabang. The Eastern Fleet was greatly augmented by units intended for the Pacific and, on 4 January 1945 two British carriers (HMS Indomitable and Indefatigable) made an attack on oil refineries at Pangkalan Brandon in Sumatra (Operation Lentil).

The final attacks were flown as Task Force 63 was en route for Sydney, Australia to become the British Pacific Fleet. Operation Meridian One and Operation Meridian Two were air attacks upon the oil refineries at Pladjoe, north of Palembang, Java and at Soengei Gerong, Sumatra. Although successful these were not as smooth as earlier attacks. Poor weather delayed fly-offs for both raids, 48 aircraft were lost or damaged and refuelling at sea was only completed with difficulty and damage due to poor weather and lack of expertise.

A number of Fleet Air Arm pilots were captured by the Japanese during the Palembang raid. These were taken to Singapore where at least some of them were executed by the Japanese military authorities[4]

Important operations were launched in 1945 as the East Indies Fleet in the recapture of Burma, including landings on Ramree Island and Akyab and near Rangoon and diversionary operations (Operation Bishop).

On May 15-16 1945, the British executed Operation Dukedom and the 26th Destroyer Flotilla (HMS Saumarez, Venus, Verulam, Vigilant and Virago) sank the Japanese heavy cruiser Haguro in the Malacca Straits by torpedo attack.

[edit] Trade protection

This was the protection of merchant ships in the Indian Ocean and it was seen as the Eastern Fleet's primary role. The threats were German, Italian and Japanese submarines, German warships and Italian and German auxiliary cruisers. A substantial part of the Fleet was employed in escorting convoys and hunting submarines and surface ships and their supply vessels. For much of the war, with naval resources needed elsewhere, there were barely enough warships to perform these tasks and, without escorts, the battleships and aircraft carriers that remained could not safely be used.

Although not a naval action, one action is noteworthy. In March 1943, members of the Calcutta Light Horse, a reserve army regiment, performed a highly successful raid on Goa harbour, sinking a German ship that was transmitting shipping information to waiting U-boats.

[edit] List of ships

Main article: List of Eastern Fleet ships

During World War II, the British Eastern Fleet included, from time to time, a number of warships from other Allied nations, such as Australia (Royal Australian Navy), France (Free French Navy), the Netherlands (Royal Netherlands Navy), India (Royal Indian Navy), New Zealand (Royal New Zealand Navy), and the United States. Major ships attached to the Eastern Fleet, or where indicated, East Indies Fleet, included:

[edit] See also

[edit] References

  1. ^ The British Empire and the Second World War, Ashley Jackson, p289
  2. ^ The British Empire and the Second World War, Ashley Jackson, p290
  3. ^ Royal Navy in Pacific and Indian Oceans area
  4. ^ Appendix V — Execution By Japanese Of Fleet Air Arm Officers | Nzetc