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[edit] Beliefs

Temple carving at Hoysaleswara temple representing the Trimurti: Brahma, Siva and Vishnu.
Temple carving at Hoysaleswara temple representing the Trimurti: Brahma, Siva and Vishnu.

Hinduism is an extremely diverse religion. There are several schools within the religion with their own philosophies that sometimes overlap, although any universal belief is impossible to identify.[1] Prominent themes in Hindu beliefs include Dharma (ethics/duties), Samsāra (The continuing cycle of birth, life, death and rebirth), Karma (action and subsequent reaction), Moksha (liberation from samsara), and the various yogas (paths or practices). Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism—which share traits with Hinduism—along with Hinduism are collectively known as Dharmic religions.[2]

[edit] Concept of God

Hinduism can be considered as henotheistic (devotion to a single "God" while accepting the existence of other gods),[3] but such a view tends to oversimplify a diverse system of thought with beliefs spanning monotheism, polytheism,[4] pantheism, monism and even atheism.

Most Hindus believe that the spirit or soul, the true "self" of every person, called the ātman, is eternal.[5] According to the monistic/pantheistic theologies of Hinduism (such as Advaita Vedanta school), Brahman (the greater Self or God) is in the highest sense One and fundamentally not distinct from Atman (hence nondualist).[6] The goal of the Advaita school is to realize that one's atman (soul) is really identical to Brahman, the uber-soul.[7] The Upanishads state that whoever becomes fully aware of the ātman as the innermost core of one's own self, realises their identity with Brahman and thereby reaches Moksha.[5][8][9]

On the other hand, monotheistic (for example, Dvaita Vedanta) and other (bhakti) schools, understand Brahman as a Supreme Being who possesses personality. In these conceptions, Brahman is associated with Vishnu, Brahma, and Shiva or Shakti depending on the sect. The ātman is dependent on God. Moksha depends on love towards God and on God's grace.[10] When God is viewed as the supreme personal being (rather than as the infinite principle) God is called Ishvara ("The Lord";[11]), Bhagavan ("The Auspicious One";[11]), or Parameshwara ("The Supreme Lord"[11]).[6] However, interpretation of Ishvara varies—ranging from non-belief in Ishvara to Brahman and Ishvara being the same thing.[12][6] There is also schools like the Samkhya which has atheistic leanings.[13]

[edit] Deva and Avatar

Krishna (left), the eighth incarnation (avatar) of Vishnu, with his consort Radha
Krishna (left), the eighth incarnation (avatar) of Vishnu, with his consort Radha

The Hindu scriptures refer to celestial entities, called Devas ("The heavenly or shining ones",[11] also called devatās). Devas may be translated into English as gods,[11] demigods,[14] deities,[11] celestial spirits[15] or angels.[16] The feminine of deva is devī. The scriptures depict the devas in their mythological stories. The devas are an integral part of Hindu culture and are depicted in art, architecture and through icons. Hindus can primarily worship one of these deities, known as their iṣṭa devatā, or chosen ideal.[17][18] The particular form of God worshiped as one's chosen ideal depends on individual preference and needs,[19] influenced by regional and family traditions.[19]

Many denominations of Hinduism teach that from time to time God descends to Earth in corporeal form to help humans along in their struggle towards liberation from rebirth (known as moksha) in the form of bhakti and restore dharma in society. Such an incarnation is called an avatar. The most famous avatars are of Vishnu, reincarnating in eight avataras, including Rama (whose life is depicted in the epic Ramayana) and Krishna (a central figure in the epic Mahabharata).

[edit] Karma, samsara and moksha

Main article: Karma in Hinduism

Karma translates literally as action, work or deed[20] and can be described as the "moral law of cause and effect".[21] According to the Upanishads, an individual, known as the jiva-atma, develops sanskaras (impressions) from actions, whether physical or mental. The "linga sharira", a body more subtle than the physical one, but less subtle than the soul, retains impressions, carrying them over into the next life, establishing a unique trajectory for the individual.[22] Thus, the concept of a universal, neutral and never-failing karma intrinsically relates to reincarnation as well as one's personality, characteristics and family. Karma threads together the notions of free will and destiny.

This cycle of action, reaction, birth, death, and rebirth is a continuum called samsara. The notion of reincarnation and karma is a strong premise in Hindu thought. The Bhagavad Gita states that:

As a person puts on new clothes, discarding old and torn clothes, similarly an embodied soul enters new material bodies, leaving the old bodies.(B.G. 2:22)[23]

Samsara provides ephemeral pleasures, which lead people to desire rebirth to enjoy the pleasures of a perishable body. However, escaping the world of samsara through moksha (liberation) is believed to ensure lasting happiness and peace.[24][25] It is thought that after several reincarnations, an atman eventually seeks unity with the cosmic spirit (Brahman/Paramatman).

The ultimate goal of life, referred to as moksha, nirvana or samadhi, is described as the realization of one's union with God; realization of one's eternal relationship with God; realization of the unity of all existence; perfect unselfishness and knowledge of the Self; liberation from ignorance; attainment of perfect mental peace; or detachment from worldly desires. Such a realization liberates one from samsara and ends the cycle of rebirth.[26][27] The exact conceptualization of moksha differs among the various Hindu schools of thought. For example, Advaita Vedanta holds that after attaining moksha an atman no longer identifies itself with an individual but as part of Brahman. The followers of Dvaita (dualistic) schools expect to spend eternity in a loka (heaven),[28] in the company of their chosen form of Ishvara. Thus, it is said, the followers of dvaita wish to "taste sugar," while the followers of Advaita wish to "become sugar."[29]

[edit] The goals of life

Main article: Purusharthas

Classical Hindu thought accepts two main life-long dharmas: Grihastha Dharma and Sannyasin Dharma.

The Grihastha Dharma recognize four goals as noble known as the puruṣhārthas. They are:

  1. kāma: Sensual pleasure and enjoyment
  2. artha: Material prosperity and success
  3. dharma: Following the laws and rules that an individual lives under
  4. moksha: Liberation from the cycle of samsara[30][31]

Among these, dharma and moksha play a special role:[31] dharma must dominate an individual's pursuit of kama and artha while seeing moksha, at the horizon.

The Sannyasin Dharma recognizes, but renounces Kama, Artha and Dharma, focusing entirely on Moksha. As described below, the Grihasthi eventually enters this stage. However, some enter this stage immediately from whichever stage they may be in.

[edit] Yoga

Swami Vivekananda, shown here practicing meditation, was a Hindu guru (teacher) recognized for his inspiring lectures on topics such as yoga.
Swami Vivekananda, shown here practicing meditation, was a Hindu guru (teacher) recognized for his inspiring lectures on topics such as yoga.

In whatever way a Hindu defines the goal of life, there are several methods (yogas) that sages have taught for reaching that goal. A practitioner of yoga is called a yogi. Texts dedicated to Yoga include the Bhagavad Gita, the Yoga Sutras, the Hatha Yoga Pradipika and, as their philosophical and historical basis, the Upanishads. Paths one can follow to achieve the spiritual goal of life (moksha, samadhi, or nirvana) include:

An individual may prefer one yoga over others according to his or her inclination and understanding. For instance some followers of the Dvaita school hold that Bhakti ("devotion") is the only practical path to achieve spiritual perfection for most people, based on their belief that the world is currently in the age of Kali yuga (one of four epochs part of the Yuga cycle).[33] Practice of one yoga does not exclude others. Many schools believe that the different yogas naturally blend into and aid other yogas. For example, the practice of jnana yoga, is thought to inevitably lead to pure love (the goal of bhakti yoga), and vice versa.[34] Someone practicing deep meditation (such as in raja yoga) must embody the core principles of karma yoga, jnana yoga and bhakti yoga, whether directly or indirectly.[32][35]


[edit] Citations

  1. ^ Weightman, Simon (1997). "Hinduism", in Hinnells, John: Handbook of Living Religions. Penguin books, 262–263. ISBN 0-140-51480-5. 
  2. ^ Frawley, David (September 1990). From the River of Heaven: Hindu and Vedic Knowledge for the Modern Age. Salt Lake City, Utah: Book Passage Press, 27. ISBN 1878423010. 
  3. ^ Gill, N.S. "Henotheism". About, Inc. Retrieved on 2007-07-05.
  4. ^ Polytheism. Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online (2007). Retrieved on 2007-07-05.
  5. ^ a b Monier-Williams, Monier [1891] (February 7 2002). Brahmanism and Hinduism: Or, Religious Thought and Life in India, as Based on the Veda and Other Sacred Books of the Hindus, Elibron Classics. Adamant Media Corporation, pp20–37. ISBN 1421265311. Retrieved on 2007-07-08. 
  6. ^ a b c Bhaskarananda, Swami [1994] (January 15 2002). The Essentials of Hinduism: A Comprehensive Overview of the World's Oldest Religion, 2nd edition, Viveka Press, 247 pages. ISBN 1884852041. 
  7. ^ Vivekananda, Swami (January 2003). Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda. Vedanta Press. ISBN 1884852041. 
  8. ^ Werner, Karel (16 December 1997). A Popular Dictionary of Hinduism, New Ed edition, Popular Dictionaries of Religion, RoutledgeCurzon, p37. ISBN 0700710493. 
  9. ^ See also the Vedic statement "ayam ātmā brahma" (This Atman is Brahman).
  10. ^ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named ISBN_0-7007-0279-2_p_7
  11. ^ a b c d e f Monier-Williams, Monier [1851] (March 1 2001). English Sanskrit Dictionary, Reprint edition, Asian Educational Services. ISBN 8120615093. Retrieved on 2007-07-08. 
  12. ^ Sinha, H.P.. Bhāratīya Darshan kī rūprekhā (Features of Indian Philosophy) (in Hindi). Motilal Banarasidas Publ. ISBN 81-208-2144-0. 
  13. ^ Sen Gupta, Anima [1959] (December 1 1986). The Evolution of the Sāṃkhya School of Thought. South Asia Books, p. viii. ISBN 8121500192. 
  14. ^ Vedic cosmology. Vedic Knowledge Online. VEDA - Bhaktivedanta Book Trust. Retrieved on 2007-06-25.
  15. ^ Manifold Mahadevas Nature Spirits. Blessingsconucopia.com. Maureen Grace Burns, Blessings Cornucopia. Retrieved on 2007-06-25.
  16. ^ MAHA KUMBA MELA. india4u.com. Frontpoint Systems Pvt Ltd. Retrieved on 2007-06-25.
  17. ^ Werner, Karel (16 December 1997). A Popular Dictionary of Hinduism, New Ed edition, Popular Dictionaries of Religion, RoutledgeCurzon, p80. ISBN 0700710493. 
  18. ^ Renou, Louis (1961). Hinduism. New York: George Braziller, p55. ISBN 9780807601648. 
  19. ^ a b Harman, William (2004). "Hindu Devotion", in Robin Rinehart: Contemporary Hinduism : ritual, culture, and practice. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO, pp.104–106. ISBN 1576079058. OCLC 53814186. 
  20. ^ Vaman S. Apte, Sanskrit-English Dictionary, (Nag Publishers, 1997)
  21. ^ Huston Smith, The World's Religions, pg 64 (HarperSanFrancisco 1991) ISBN 0-06-250799-0
  22. ^ S. Radhakrishnan, Indian Philosophy - Vol.1, pg. 254 (Oxford University Press, 1996) ISBN 0 19 563819 0
  23. ^ Bhagavad Gita 2.22
  24. ^ See Bhagavad Gita XVI.8-20
  25. ^ See Swami Vivekananda, Jnana Yoga 301-02 (8th Printing 1993)
  26. ^ Rinehart, Robin, ed., Contemporary Hinduism19-21 (2004) ISBN 1-57607-905-8
  27. ^ Swami Bhaskarananda, Essentials of Hinduism, 79-86 (Viveka Press 1994) ISBN 1-884852-02-5
  28. ^ The concepts of Heaven and Hell do not translate directly into Hinduism. Spiritual realms such as Vaikunta (the abode of Vishnu) or loka are the closest analogues to an eternal Kingdom of God.
  29. ^ Gospel of Sri Ramakrishna, Translation by Swami Nikhilananda (8th Ed. 1992) ISBN 0-911206-01-9
  30. ^ Werner, Karel, "A Popular Dictionary of Hinduism", Curzon Press, 1994. ISBN 0-7007-0279-2
  31. ^ a b Swami Bhaskarananda, Essentials of Hinduism 7
  32. ^ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named ISBN_1-884852-02-5
  33. ^ B-Gita 11.54 "My dear Arjuna, only by undivided devotional service can I be understood as I am, standing before you, and can thus be seen directly. Only in this way can you enter into the mysteries of My understanding."
  34. ^ B-Gita 5.5 "One who knows that the position reached by means of analytical study can also be attained by devotional service, and who therefore sees analytical study and devotional service to be on the same level, sees things as they are."
  35. ^ See Monier Williams, Religious Thought and Life in India 116 (New Delhi 1974)