Dirichlet character
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In number theory, Dirichlet characters are certain arithmetic functions which arise from completely multiplicative characters on the units of . Dirichlet characters are used to define Dirichlet L-functions, which are meromorphic functions with a variety of interesting analytic properties. If χ is a Dirichlet character, one defines its Dirichlet L-series by
where s is a complex number with real part > 1. By analytic continuation, this function can be extended to a meromorphic function on the whole complex plane. Dirichlet L-functions are generalizations of the Riemann zeta-function and appear prominently in the generalized Riemann hypothesis.
Dirichlet characters are named in honour of Johann Peter Gustav Lejeune Dirichlet.
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[edit] Axiomatic definition
A Dirichlet character is any function χ from the integers to the complex numbers which has the following properties:
1) There exists a positive integer k such that χ(n) = χ(n + k) for all n. 2) If gcd(n,k) > 1 then χ(n) = 0; if gcd(n,k) = 1 then χ(n) ≠ 0. 3) χ(mn) = χ(m)χ(n) for all integers m and n.
These consequences are important:
By property 3), χ(1)=χ(1×1)=χ(1)χ(1); since gcd(1, k) = 1, property 2) says χ(1) ≠ 0, so
4) χ(1) = 1.
1) says that a character is periodic with period k; we say that χ is a character to the modulus k. This is equivalent to saying that
5) if a ≡ b (mod k) then χ(a) = χ(b).
If gcd(a,k) = 1, Euler's theorem says that aφ(k) ≡ 1 (mod k) (where φ(k) is the totient function). Therefore by 5) and 4), χ(aφ(k)) = χ(1) = 1, and by 3), χ(aφ(k)) =χ(a)φ(k) . So for all a relatively prime to k,
6) χ(a) is a φ(k)-th complex root of unity.
Condition 3) says that a character is completely multiplicative.
The unique character of period 1 is called the trivial character. Note that any character vanishes at 0 except the trivial one, which is 1 on all integers.
A character is called principal if it assumes the value 1 for arguments coprime to its modulus and otherwise is 0. A character is called real if it assumes real values only. A character which is not real is called complex.
[edit] Construction via residue classes
The last two properties show that every Dirichlet character χ is completely multiplicative. One can show that χ(n) is a φ(k)th root of unity whenever n and k are coprime, and where φ(k) is the totient function. Dirichlet characters may be viewed in terms of the character group of the unit group of the ring Z/kZ, as given below.
[edit] Residue classes
Given an integer k, one defines the residue class of an integer n as the set of all integers congruent to n modulo k: That is, the residue class is the coset of n in the quotient ring Z/kZ.
The set of units modulo k forms an abelian group of order φ(k), where group multiplication is given by and φ again denotes Euler's phi function. The identity in this group is the residue class and the inverse of is the residue class where . For example, for k=6, the set of units is because 0, 2, 3, and 4 are not coprime to 6.
[edit] Dirichlet characters
A Dirichlet character modulo k is a group homomorphism χ from the unit group modulo k to the non-zero complex numbers (necessarily with values that are roots of unity since the units modulo k form a finite group). We can lift χ to a completely multiplicative function on integers relatively prime to k and then to all integers by extending the function to be 0 on integers having a non-trivial factor in common with k. The principal character χ1 modulo k has the properties
- χ1(n) = 1 if gcd(n, k) = 1 and
- χ1(n) = 0 if gcd(n, k) > 1.
When k is 1, the principal character modulo k is equal to 1 at all integers. For k greater than 1, the principal character modulo k vanishes at integers having a non-trivial common factor with k and is 1 at other integers.
[edit] A few character tables
The tables below help illustrate the nature of a Dirichlet character. They present all of the characters from modulus 1 to modulus 10. The characters χ1 are the principal characters.
[edit] Modulus 1
There is φ(1) = 1 character modulo 1:
-
χ \ n 0 χ1(n) 1
This is the trivial character.
[edit] Modulus 2
There is φ(2) = 1 character modulo 2:
-
χ \ n 0 1 χ1(n) 0 1
Note that χ is wholly determined by χ(1) since 1 generates the group of units modulo 2.
[edit] Modulus 3
There are φ(3) = 2 characters modulo 3:
-
χ \ n 0 1 2 χ1(n) 0 1 1 χ2(n) 0 1 −1
Note that χ is wholly determined by χ(2) since 2 generates the group of units modulo 3.
[edit] Modulus 4
There are φ(4) = 2 characters modulo 4:
-
χ \ n 0 1 2 3 χ1(n) 0 1 0 1 χ2(n) 0 1 0 −1
Note that χ is wholly determined by χ(3) since 3 generates the group of units modulo 4.
The Dirichlet L-series for χ1(n) is
where ζ(s) is the Riemann zeta-function. The L-series for χ2(n) is the Dirichlet beta-function
[edit] Modulus 5
There are φ(5) = 4 characters modulo 5. In the tables, i is a square root of − 1.
-
χ \ n 0 1 2 3 4 χ1(n) 0 1 1 1 1 χ2(n) 0 1 i −i −1 χ3(n) 0 1 −1 −1 1 χ4(n) 0 1 −i i −1
Note that χ is wholly determined by χ(2) since 2 generates the group of units modulo 5.
[edit] Modulus 6
There are φ(6) = 2 characters modulo 6:
-
χ \ n 0 1 2 3 4 5 χ1(n) 0 1 0 0 0 1 χ2(n) 0 1 0 0 0 −1
Note that χ is wholly determined by χ(5) since 5 generates the group of units modulo 6.
[edit] Modulus 7
There are φ(7) = 6 characters modulo 7. In the table below, ω = exp(πi / 3).
-
χ \ n 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 χ1(n) 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 χ2(n) 0 1 ω2 ω −ω −ω2 −1 χ3(n) 0 1 −ω ω2 ω2 −ω 1 χ4(n) 0 1 1 −1 1 −1 −1 χ5(n) 0 1 ω2 −ω −ω ω2 1 χ6(n) 0 1 −ω −ω2 ω2 ω −1
Note that χ is wholly determined by χ(3) since 3 generates the group of units modulo 7.
[edit] Modulus 8
There are φ(8) = 4 characters modulo 8.
-
χ \ n 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 χ1(n) 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 χ2(n) 0 1 0 1 0 −1 0 −1 χ3(n) 0 1 0 −1 0 1 0 −1 χ4(n) 0 1 0 −1 0 −1 0 1
Note that χ is wholly determined by χ(3) and χ(5) since 3 and 5 generate the group of units modulo 8.
[edit] Modulus 9
There are φ(9) = 6 characters modulo 9. In the table below, ω = exp(πi / 3).
-
χ \ n 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 χ1(n) 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 χ2(n) 0 1 ω 0 ω2 −ω2 0 −ω −1 χ3(n) 0 1 ω2 0 −ω −ω 0 ω2 1 χ4(n) 0 1 −1 0 1 −1 0 1 −1 χ5(n) 0 1 −ω 0 ω2 ω2 0 −ω 1 χ6(n) 0 1 −ω2 0 −ω ω 0 ω2 −1
Note that χ is wholly determined by χ(2) since 2 generates the group of units modulo 9.
[edit] Modulus 10
There are φ(10) = 4 characters modulo 10.
-
χ \ n 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 χ1(n) 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 χ2(n) 0 1 0 i 0 0 0 −i 0 −1 χ3(n) 0 1 0 −1 0 0 0 −1 0 1 χ4(n) 0 1 0 −i 0 0 0 i 0 −1
Note that χ is wholly determined by χ(3) since 3 generates the group of units modulo 10.
[edit] Examples
If p is a prime number, then the function
- where is the Legendre symbol, is a Dirichlet character modulo p.
More generally, if m is an odd number the function
- where is the Jacobi symbol, is a Dirichlet character modulo m. These are called the quadratic characters.
[edit] Conductors
Residues mod N give rise to residues mod M, for any factor M of N, by discarding some information. The effect on Dirichlet characters goes in the opposite direction: if χ is a character mod M, it gives rise to a character χ* mod N for any multiple N of M. With some attention to the values at which characters take the value 0, one gets the concept of a primitive Dirichlet character, one that does not arise from a factor; and the associated idea of conductor, i.e. the natural (smallest) modulus for a character. Imprimitive characters can cause missing Euler factors in L-functions.
[edit] History
Dirichlet characters and their L-series were introduced by Johann Peter Gustav Lejeune Dirichlet, in 1831, in order to prove Dirichlet's theorem on arithmetic progressions. He only studied them for real s and especially as s tends to 1. The extension of these functions to complex s in the whole complex plane was obtained by Bernhard Riemann in 1859.
[edit] See also
[edit] References
- Tom M. Apostol Introduction to Analytic Number Theory, (1976) Springer-Verlag, New York. ISBN 0-387-90163-9 See chapter 6.