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| Carbine, 5.56 mm, M4 | |
|---|---|
 An M4A1 with SOPMOD package, including Rail Interface System (RIS), flip-up rear sight and Trijicon ACOG 4x. |
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| Type | Assault carbine |
| Place of origin |  United States |
| Service history | |
| In service | 1994–present |
| Used by | See Users |
| Wars | War in Afghanistan (2001–present), War in Iraq (2003-present) |
| Production history | |
| Produced | 1994–present |
| Variants | M4A1, CQBR |
| Specifications | |
| Weight | 5.9 lb (2.7 kg) empty 6.9 lb (3.1 kg) w/ 30 rounds |
| Length | 33 in (838 mm) (stock extended) 29.8 in (757 mm) (stock retracted) |
| Barrel length | 14.5 in (368 mm) |
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| Cartridge | 5.56x45mm NATO |
| Action | Gas-operated, rotating bolt |
| Rate of fire | 700–950 round/min cyclic |
| Muzzle velocity | 2,900 ft/s (884 m/s) |
| Feed system | Various STANAG Magazines. |
The M4 Carbine is a family of firearms tracing its lineage back to earlier carbine versions of the M16, all based on the original AR-15 made by ArmaLite. It is a shorter and lighter version of the M16A2 assault rifle, achieving 80% parts commonality with the M16A2. The M4 has selective fire options including semi-automatic and three-round burst (like the M16A2), while the M4A1 has a "full auto" option in place of the three-round burst.
[edit] Overview
The M4 and variants fire 5.56x45mm NATO ammunition and are gas-operated, air-cooled, magazine-fed, selective fire firearms with a 4-position telescoping stock. Original M4 models had a flat-ended telescoping stock, but newer models are now equipped with a redesigned telescoping stock that is slightly larger and the end has a curvature.[1]
As with many carbines, the M4 is handy and more convenient to carry than a full-length rifle. While this makes it a candidate for non-infantry troops (vehicle crews, clerks and staff officers), it also makes it ideal for close quarters combat (CQC), and airborne and special operations. It has been adopted by United States Special Operations Command (USSOCOM) and is the preferred weapon of the U.S. Army Special Forces. M4 have also been fielded by the Australian Special Air Service Regiment. Malaysia purchased M4 Carbine service rifles to replace the Steyr AUG service rifles in its armed forces in 2006 and will be manufactured in Malaysia under license by Colt Firearms.
The M4 was developed and produced for the United States government by Colt Firearms, which has an exclusive contract to produce the M4 family of weapons through 2009; however, a number of other manufacturers offer M4-like firearms. The M4, along with the M16A4, has mostly replaced M16 and M16A2 firearms; the U.S. Air Force, for example, plans to transition completely to the M4 Carbine. The M4 has also replaced the M3A1 submachine gun that remained in service (mostly with tank crews). The M4 is similar to much earlier compact M16 versions, such as the 1960s-era XM177 family.
The United States Marine Corps has ordered its officers (up to the rank of lieutenant colonel) and SNCOs to carry the M4A1 carbine variant instead of the M9 Beretta pistol. This is in recognition that pistols are largely useless in current conflicts, and is in line with the Marine Corps phrase, "Every Marine a rifleman." United States Navy corpsmen will also be issued M4A1s instead of the M9, according to the Marine Corps Times.[2]
[edit] History and variants
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For more details on M4 Carbine variants, see AR-15 variants
Except for the very first delivery order, all U.S. military-issue M4 and M4A1 possess a flat-top NATO M1913-specification (Picatinny) rail on top of the receiver for attachment of optical sights and other aiming devices — Trijicon TA01 and TA31 Advanced Combat Optical Gunsights (ACOG) and Aimpoint M68 Close Combat Optic (M68 CCO) being the favorite choices — and a detachable rail-mounted carrying handle. The current government standards are the Colt Model 920 (M4) and 921 (M4A1).
[edit] M4/M4A1
The major difference between these models is that the M4 has a "S-1-3" (safe/semi-automatic/3-round burst) trigger group while the M4A1 has a "S-1-F" (safe/semi-automatic/fully automatic) trigger group.
[edit] M4 MWS (Modular Weapon System)
Colt Model 925 carbines were tested fitted with the Knight's Armament Corporation (KAC) M4 RAS under the designation M4E2, but this designation appears to have been scrapped in favor of mounting this system to existing carbines without changing the designation. The U.S. Army Field Manual specifies for the Army that adding the Rail Accessory System (RAS) turns the weapon into the M4 MWS or Modular Weapon System.
[edit] M4A1
The M4A1 carbine is a variant of the basic M4 carbine intended for special operations use. The M4A1 can be found in use by many U.S. military units, including the Delta Force, U.S. Navy SEALs, U.S. Air Force Pararescue and Combat Controller Special Tactics Teams, U.S. Army Rangers, and the U.S. Marine Corps' Radio Reconnaissance Platoons and Force Reconnaissance companies, and most Joint Special Operations Command multi-service combat teams. The M4A1 Carbine is specially favored by counter-terrorist and special operations units for close quarters combat because of the carbine's compactness and firepower. These features are also very useful in urban warfare. Although the M4 does not have as great of an effective range as the longer M16, many military analysts consider engagement with a non-specialized small arm above a range of 300 meters to be unnecessary. It is effective at ranges of 150 meters or less. It has a maximum effective range of about 460 meters.
In the last few years, M4A1 carbines have been refit or received straight from factory with barrels with a thicker profile under the handguard. This is for a variety of reasons such as heat dissipation during full-auto and accuracy as a byproduct of barrel weight. These heavier barrel weapons are also fitted with a heavier buffer known as the H2. Out of three sliding weights inside the buffer, the H2 possesses two tungsten weights and one steel weight, versus the standard H buffer, which uses one tungsten weight and two steel weights. These weapons, known by Colt as the Model 921HB (for Heavy Barrel), have also been designated M4A1, and as far as the government is concerned the M4A1 represents both the 921 and 921HB.
[edit] SOPMOD Block I
USSOCOM developed the Special Operations Peculiar Modification (SOPMOD) Block I kit for the carbines used by units under its jurisdiction. The kit features an M4A1 carbine, a Rail Interface System (RIS) handguard developed by Knight's Armament Company, a shortened quick-detachable M203 grenade launcher and leaf sight, a KAC sound suppressor, a KAC back-up rear sight, an Insight Technologies AN/PEQ-2A visible laser/infrared designator, along with Trijicon's ACOG and Reflex sights, and a night vision sight. This kit was designed to be configurable (modular) for various missions, and the kit is currently in service with special operations units (though many soldiers have changed the Trijicon reflex sight for EOTech holographic sights).
[edit] SOPMOD Block II
A second-generation SOPMOD kit (now known as SOPMOD II) is currently under development, with many different manufacturers competing for a contract. Notable bidders include Knight's Armament Company, Atlantic Research Marketing Systems (ARMS), and Lewis Machine & Tools. Daniel Defense has won the contract for the RIS-II, the next generation of rail handguards.
Variants of the carbine built by different manufacturers are also in service with many other foreign special forces units, such as the Australian Special Air Service Regiment (SASR). While the SASR uses weapons of essentially the same pattern built by Colt for export (Colt uses different models to separate weapons for the U.S. military and those for commercial/export purposes), the British SAS uses a variant on the basic theme, the SFW built by Diemaco of Canada. Although Diemaco was purchased by Colt and renamed Colt Canada, the Diemaco names and related firearms were kept.
[edit] Design
The M4/M4A1 5.56 mm Carbine is a gas-operated, air-cooled, magazine-fed, selective fire, shoulder-fired weapon with a telescoping stock. A shortened variant of the M16A2 rifle with a 14.5 in (368 mm)barrel, the M4 provides the individual soldier operating in close quarters the capability to engage targets at extended range with accurate, lethal fire. The original M4 Carbine has semi-automatic and three-round burst fire modes, while the M4A1 has "semi" and "full auto", with no three-round burst. The M4 Carbine achieves over 80% commonality with the M16A2 rifle and was intended to replace the .45 ACP M3 submachine guns and selected M9 pistols and M16 rifle series with most Army units. (This plan was thought to be changed with the development of the XM29 OICW and the XM8 carbine. However, both projects were cancelled.) The M4 Carbine is also capable of mounting the M203 grenade launcher.
Some features of the M4 and M4A1 compared to a full-length M16-series rifle include:
However, there have been some criticisms of the carbine, such as lower muzzle velocities and louder report due to the shorter barrel, additional stress on parts because of the shorter gas system, and a tendency to overheat faster than the M16A2.
[edit] Accessories
Like all the variants of the M16 assault rifle, the M4 Carbine and the M4A1 Carbine can be fitted with many accessories, such as night vision devices, laser pointers, telescopic sights, bipods, the M203 grenade launcher and the XM26 LSS shotgun, and anything else compatible with a MIL-STD-1913 Picatinny rail.
Other common accessories include the AN/PEQ-2, Advanced Combat Optical Gunsight (ACOG), and M68 Aimpoint. EOTech holographic weapon sights are to be part of the SOPMOD II package. Visible and IR (infrared) lights of various manufacturers are also commonly attached using various mounting methods. As with all versions of the M16, the M4 accepts a blank-firing attachment (BFA).
[edit] M4 Carbine effectiveness
An April 2002 presentation by the Natick Soldier Center presented by LTC Charlie Dean and SFC Sam Newland reported on lessons learned from M4 use in Afghanistan (such as use during Operation Anaconda):
- 34% of soldiers reported that their M4's handguards rattle and become excessively hot when firing.
- 15% reported that they had trouble zeroing the M68 reflex sight.
- 35% added barber brushes and 24% added dental picks to their cleaning kits.
- Soldiers reported the following malfunctions:
- 20% reported double-feeding.
- 15% reported feeding jams.
- 13% reported that feeding problems were due to magazines.
- 89% of soldiers reported confidence in the weapon.
- 20% were dissatisfied with its ease of maintenance.
Soldiers requested the following changes:
- 55% requested the firearm be made lighter
- 20% requested a larger magazine
[edit] 2007 Dust Test
In the fall of 2007, four carbines were tested in "sandstorm conditions" at Aberdeen Proving Ground. The M4s was pitted against the Heckler & Koch XM8 rifle, FNH USA’s SOF Combat Assault Rifle (SCAR) and the Heckler & Koch HK416. Ten of each type of rifle were used to fire 6,000 rounds each, for a total of 60,000 rounds per rifle type.[3] The M4 suffered significantly more stoppages than its competitors: 882 stoppages, 19 requiring an armorer to fix. In comparison, the most reliable weapon, the XM8, had 116 minor stoppages and 11 major ones. It was followed by the FN SCAR with 226 stoppages, and the HK416 with 233.[4][5] The army now has plans to improve upon the M4. A new cold hammer forge barrel and new more reliable magazines have been their primary focus. The heavier barrel has a longer life and the magazines will reduce the stoppages. The army has stated that if all goes well during testing of the new magazines, they could be ready for combat by spring. The Army realized the need for new magazines when they found that 239 of the 882 failures were the result of problems in the magazine.[6]
[edit] Trademark issues
Colt has held a US trademark on the word "M4"[7] Many manufacturers produce firearms that come very close in terms of appearance to a military M4, sometimes colloquially referred to as an "M4-gery" (pronounced ĕm'fôr jə-rē, a portmanteau of "M4" and "forgery"). Colt has maintained that it retains sole rights to the M4 name and design. Other manufacturers had long maintained that Colt had been overstating their rights — "M4" has now become more of a generic term for a shortened M16/AR-15. In April 2004, Colt filed a lawsuit against Heckler & Koch and Bushmaster Firearms, claiming acts of trademark infringement, trade dress infringement, trademark dilution, false designation of origin, false advertising, patent infringement, unfair competition, and deceptive trade practices. Heckler & Koch later settled out of court, changing one product's name from "HK M4" to "HK416". However, on December 8th, 2005, a District court judge in Maine granted a summary judgment in favor of Bushmaster Firearms, dismissing all of Colt's claims except for false advertising. On the latter claim, Colt could not recover monetary damages. More importantly, the court ruled that "M4" was now a generic name, and that Colt's trademark should be revoked.
[edit] Users
In addition to the United States of America (the country of origin), users of the M4 Carbine and its variants include;[citation needed]
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[edit] U.S. citizen ownership
Sales of actual M4s by Colt are restricted to military and civilian law enforcement. Only under special circumstances can a private citizen own an official M4 Carbine. While many machine guns can be legally owned with a proper tax stamp from the BATFE, an amendment to the Firearm Owners Protection Act of 1986 barred the transfer to private citizens of machine guns made in the U.S. after May 19, 1986. The only exception was for Special Occupational Taxpayers (SOT): licensed machine gun dealers with demonstration letters, manufacturers, and those dealing in exports and imports. As such, only the earliest Colt M4 prototypes built prior to May 19, 1986 would be legal to own by civilians not in the categories mentioned. However, as US firearms law considers the lower receiver of a M16/M4 type rifle to be the "firearm" (the serial numbered and, in the case of machineguns, registered under federal law, part of the weapon), a registered Colt M16 (much more common than an actual M4) may be configured as an M4 by replacing the M16 upper receiver/barrel assembly with an M4 top half, the burst mechanism with a fully-automatic FCG, and the fixed rifle stock with a 4-position telescoping M4 stock.
[edit] References
- ^ Photo of the Colt M4 with the redesigned telescoping stock
- ^ http://www.usmc.mil/maradmins/maradmin2000.nsf/9ad58548f0ddc1e58525697a0070ebf9/cbb7191e3979de2b85257302004fdc11
- ^ http://www.military.com/NewsContent/0,13319,158468,00.html
- ^ http://www.defensetech.org/archives/003909.html
- ^ http://www.armytimes.com/news/2007/12/army_carbine_dusttest_071217/
- ^ http://www.armytimes.com/news/2007/12/army_m4_hearing_071217w/
- ^ US Trademark serial number 76335060 registration number 2734001 http://tess2.uspto.gov/bin/showfield?f=doc&state=75n9nl.3.13
[edit] See also
[edit] External links
- Colt Official M4 Military page and Colt M4 Law Enforcement page
- US Army M4 fact file
- The AR-15/M16 Magazine FAQ
- U.S. Army Won't Field Rifle Deemed Superior to M4
- The USA's M4 Carbine Controversy
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| Animals Fossil range: Ediacaran - Recent |
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 Clockwise from top-left: Loligo vulgaris (a mollusk), Chrysaora quinquecirrha (a cnidarian), Aphthona flava (an arthropod), Eunereis longissima (an annelid), and Panthera tigris (a chordate).
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| Phyla | ||||||
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Animals are a major group of multicellular, eukaryotic organisms of the kingdom Animalia or Metazoa. Their body plan becomes fixed as they develop, although some undergo a process of metamorphosis later on in their life. Most animals are motile - they can move spontaneously and independently. Animals are heterotrophs - they are dependent on other organisms (e.g. plants) for sustenance.
Most known animal phyla appeared in the fossil record as marine species during the Cambrian explosion, about 542 million years ago.
[edit] Etymology
The word "animal" comes from the Latin word animale, neuter of animalis, and is derived from anima, meaning vital breath or soul. In everyday colloquial usage, the word usually refers to non-human animals. The biological definition of the word refers to all members of the Kingdom Animalia. Therefore, when the word "animal" is used in a biological context, humans are included.[1]
[edit] Characteristics
Animals have several characteristics that set them apart from other living things. Animals are eukaryotic and usually multicellular[2] (although see Myxozoa), which separates them from bacteria and most protists. They are heterotrophic,[3] generally digesting food in an internal chamber, which separates them from plants and algae. They are also distinguished from plants, algae, and fungi by lacking cell walls.[4] All animals are motile,[5] if only at certain life stages. In most animals, embryos pass through a blastula stage, which is a characteristic exclusive to animals.
[edit] Structure
With a few exceptions, most notably the sponges (Phylum Porifera), animals have bodies differentiated into separate tissues. These include muscles, which are able to contract and control locomotion, and nerve tissue, which sends and processes signals. There is also typically an internal digestive chamber, with one or two openings. Animals with this sort of organization are called metazoans, or eumetazoans when the former is used for animals in general.
All animals have eukaryotic cells, surrounded by a characteristic extracellular matrix composed of collagen and elastic glycoproteins. This may be calcified to form structures like shells, bones, and spicules. During development it forms a relatively flexible framework upon which cells can move about and be reorganized, making complex structures possible. In contrast, other multicellular organisms like plants and fungi have cells held in place by cell walls, and so develop by progressive growth. Also, unique to animal cells are the following intercellular junctions: tight junctions, gap junctions, and desmosomes.
[edit] Reproduction and development
Nearly all animals undergo some form of sexual reproduction. Adults are diploid or polyploid. They have a few specialized reproductive cells, which undergo meiosis to produce smaller motile spermatozoa or larger non-motile ova. These fuse to form zygotes, which develop into new individuals.
Many animals are also capable of asexual reproduction. This may take place through parthenogenesis, where fertile eggs are produced without mating, or in some cases through fragmentation.
A zygote initially develops into a hollow sphere, called a blastula, which undergoes rearrangement and differentiation. In sponges, blastula larvae swim to a new location and develop into a new sponge. In most other groups, the blastula undergoes more complicated rearrangement. It first invaginates to form a gastrula with a digestive chamber, and two separate germ layers - an external ectoderm and an internal endoderm. In most cases, a mesoderm also develops between them. These germ layers then differentiate to form tissues and organs.
Most animals grow by indirectly using the energy of sunlight. Plants use this energy to convert sunlight into simple sugars using a process known as photosynthesis. Starting with the molecules carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O), photosynthesis converts the energy of sunlight into chemical energy stored in the bonds of glucose (C6H12O6) and releases oxygen (O2). These sugars are then used as the building blocks which allow the plant to grow. When animals eat these plants (or eat other animals which have eaten plants), the sugars produced by the plant are used by the animal. They are either used directly to help the animal grow, or broken down, releasing stored solar energy, and giving the animal the energy required for motion. This process is known as glycolysis.
Animals who live close to hydrothermal vents and cold seeps on the ocean floor are not dependent on the energy of sunlight. Instead, chemosynthetic archaea and eubacteria form the base of the food chain.
[edit] Origin and fossil record
Animals are generally considered to have evolved from a flagellated eukaryote. Their closest known living relatives are the choanoflagellates, collared flagellates that have a morphology similar to the choanocytes of certain sponges. Molecular studies place animals in a supergroup called the opisthokonts, which also include the choanoflagellates, fungi and a few small parasitic protists. The name comes from the posterior location of the flagellum in motile cells, such as most animal spermatozoa, whereas other eukaryotes tend to have anterior flagella.
The first fossils that might represent animals appear towards the end of the Precambrian, around 610 million years ago, and are known as the Ediacaran or Vendian biota. These are difficult to relate to later fossils, however. Some may represent precursors of modern phyla, but they may be separate groups, and it is possible they are not really animals at all. Aside from them, most known animal phyla make a more or less simultaneous appearance during the Cambrian period, about 542 million years ago. It is still disputed whether this event, called the Cambrian explosion, represents a rapid divergence between different groups or a change in conditions that made fossilization possible. However some paleontologists and geologists would suggest that animals appeared much earlier than previously thought, possibly even as early as 1 billion years ago. Trace fossils such as tracks and burrows found in Tonian era strata in India indicate the presence of triploblastic worm like metazoans roughly as large (about 5mm wide) and complex as earthworms.[6] In addition during the beginning of the Tonian period around 1 billion years ago (roughly the same time that the trace fossils previously discussed in this article date back to) there was a decrease in Stromatolite diversity which may indicate the appearance of grazing animals during this time as Stromatolites also increased in diversity shortly after the end-Ordovician and end-Permian rendered large amounts of grazing marine animals extinct and decreased shortly after their populations recovered. However some other scientists doubt that these fossils are authentic and have suggested these trace fossils are just the result of natural processes such as erosion.[citation needed]
[edit] Groups of animals
The sponges (Porifera) were long thought to have diverged from other animals early. As mentioned above, they lack the complex organization found in most other phyla. Their cells are differentiated, but in most cases not organized into distinct tissues. Sponges are sessile and typically feed by drawing in water through pores. Archaeocyatha, which have fused skeletons, may represent sponges or a separate phylum. However, a phylogenomic study in 2008 of 150 genes in 21 genera[7] revealed that it is the Ctenophora or comb jellies which are the basal lineage of animals, at least among those 21 phyla. The authors speculate that sponges—or at least those lines of sponges they investigated—are not so primitive, but may instead be secondarily simplified.
Among the other phyla, the Ctenophora and the Cnidaria, which includes sea anemones, corals, and jellyfish, are radially symmetric and have digestive chambers with a single opening, which serves as both the mouth and the anus. Both have distinct tissues, but they are not organized into organs. There are only two main germ layers, the ectoderm and endoderm, with only scattered cells between them. As such, these animals are sometimes called diploblastic. The tiny Placozoans are similar, but they do not have a permanent digestive chamber.
The remaining animals form a monophyletic group called the Bilateria. For the most part, they are bilaterally symmetric, and often have a specialized head with feeding and sensory organs. The body is triploblastic, i.e. all three germ layers are well-developed, and tissues form distinct organs. The digestive chamber has two openings, a mouth and an anus, and there is also an internal body cavity called a coelom or pseudocoelom. There are exceptions to each of these characteristics, however - for instance adult echinoderms are radially symmetric, and certain parasitic worms have extremely simplified body structures.
Genetic studies have considerably changed our understanding of the relationships within the Bilateria. Most appear to belong to two major lineages: the Deuterostomes and Protostomes, which includes the Ecdysozoa, Platyzoa, and Lophotrochozoa. In addition, there are a few small groups of bilaterians with relatively similar structure that appear to have diverged before these major groups. These include the Acoelomorpha, Rhombozoa, and Orthonectida. The Myxozoa, single-celled parasites that were originally considered Protozoa, are now believed to have developed from the Bilateria as well.
[edit] Deuterostomes
Deuterostomes differ from the other Bilateria, called protostomes, in several ways. In both cases there is a complete digestive tract. However, in protostomes the initial opening (the archenteron) develops into the mouth, and an anus forms separately. In deuterostomes this is reversed. In most protostomes, cells simply fill in the interior of the gastrula to form the mesoderm, called schizocoelous development, but in deuterostomes it forms through invagination of the endoderm, called enterocoelic pouching. Deuterostomes also have a dorsal, rather than a ventral, nerve chord and their embryos undergo different cleavage.
All this suggests the deuterostomes and protostomes are separate, monophyletic lineages. The main phyla of deuterostomes are the Echinodermata and Chordata. The former are radially symmetric and exclusively marine, such as starfish, sea urchins, and sea cucumbers. The latter are dominated by the vertebrates, animals with backbones. These include fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals.
In addition to these, the deuterostomes also include the Hemichordata or acorn worms. Although they are not especially prominent today, the important fossil graptolites may belong to this group.
The Chaetognatha or arrow worms may also be deuterostomes, but more recent studies suggest protostome affinities.
[edit] Ecdysozoa
.jpg/180px-Sympetrum_flaveolum_-_side_(aka).jpg)
The Ecdysozoa are protostomes, named after the common trait of growth by moulting or ecdysis. The largest animal phylum belongs here, the Arthropoda, including insects, spiders, crabs, and their kin. All these organisms have a body divided into repeating segments, typically with paired appendages. Two smaller phyla, the Onychophora and Tardigrada, are close relatives of the arthropods and share these traits.
The ecdysozoans also include the Nematoda or roundworms, the second largest animal phylum. Roundworms are typically microscopic, and occur in nearly every environment where there is water. A number are important parasites. Smaller phyla related to them are the Nematomorpha or horsehair worms, and the Kinorhyncha, Priapulida, and Loricifera. These groups have a reduced coelom, called a pseudocoelom.
The remaining two groups of protostomes are sometimes grouped together as the Spiralia, since in both embryos develop with spiral cleavage.
[edit] Platyzoa
The Platyzoa include the phylum Platyhelminthes, the flatworms. These were originally considered some of the most primitive Bilateria, but it now appears they developed from more complex ancestors.[8]
A number of parasites are included in this group, such as the flukes and tapeworms. Flatworms are acoelomates, lacking a body cavity, as are their closest relatives, the microscopic Gastrotricha.[9]
The other platyzoan phyla are mostly microscopic and pseudocoelomate. The most prominent are the Rotifera or rotifers, which are common in aqueous environments. They also include the Acanthocephala or spiny-headed worms, the Gnathostomulida, Micrognathozoa, and possibly the Cycliophora.[10] These groups share the presence of complex jaws, from which they are called the Gnathifera.
[edit] Lophotrochozoa
The Lophotrochozoa include two of the most successful animal phyla, the Mollusca and Annelida.[11][12] The former includes animals such as snails, clams, and squids, and the latter comprises the segmented worms, such as earthworms and leeches. These two groups have long been considered close relatives because of the common presence of trochophore larvae, but the annelids were considered closer to the arthropods,[13] because they are both segmented. Now this is generally considered convergent evolution, owing to many morphological and genetic differences between the two phyla.[14]
The Lophotrochozoa also include the Nemertea or ribbon worms, the Sipuncula, and several phyla that have a fan of cilia around the mouth, called a lophophore.[15] These were traditionally grouped together as the lophophorates.[16] but it now appears they are paraphyletic,[17] some closer to the Nemertea and some to the Mollusca and Annelida.[18][19] They include the Brachiopoda or lamp shells, which are prominent in the fossil record, the Entoprocta, the Phoronida, and possibly the Bryozoa or moss animals.[20]
[edit] Model organisms
Because of the great diversity found in animals, it is more economical for scientists to study a small number of chosen species so that connections can be drawn from their work and conclusions extrapolated about how animals function in general. Because they are easy to keep and breed, the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster and the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans have long been the most intensively studied metazoan model organisms, and were among the first lifeforms to be genetically sequenced. This was facilitated by the severely reduced state of their genomes, but the double-edged sword here is that with many genes, introns and linkages lost, these ecdysozoans can teach us little about the origins of animals in general. The extent of this type of evolution within the superphylum will be revealed by the crustacean, annelid, and molluscan genome projects currently in progress. Analysis of the starlet sea anemone genome has emphasised the importance of sponges, placozoans, and choanoflagellates, also being sequenced, in explaining the arrival of 1500 ancestral genes unique to the Eumetazoa.[21]
An analysis of the homoscleromorph sponge Oscarella carmela also suggests that the last common ancestor of sponges and the eumetazoan animals was more complex than previously assumed.[22]
Other model organisms belonging to the animal kingdom include the mouse (Mus musculus) and zebrafish (Danio rerio}.
[edit] History of classification
.jpg/180px-Carolus_Linnaeus_(cleaned_up_version).jpg)
Aristotle divided the living world between animals and plants, and this was followed by Carolus Linnaeus (Carl von Linné), in the first hierarchical classification. Since then biologists have begun emphasizing evolutionary relationships, and so these groups have been restricted somewhat. For instance, microscopic protozoa were originally considered animals because they move, but are now treated separately.
In Linnaeus's original scheme, the animals were one of three kingdoms, divided into the classes of Vermes, Insecta, Pisces, Amphibia, Aves, and Mammalia. Since then the last four have all been subsumed into a single phylum, the Chordata, whereas the various other forms have been separated out. The above lists represent our current understanding of the group, though there is some variation from source to source.
[edit] See also
- Fauna
- List of animal names
- Animal behavior
- Animal rights
- List of animals by number of neurons
- Holocene extinction event
[edit] Notes
- ^ Photo of the Colt M4 with the redesigned telescoping stock
- ^ http://www.usmc.mil/maradmins/maradmin2000.nsf/9ad58548f0ddc1e58525697a0070ebf9/cbb7191e3979de2b85257302004fdc11
- ^ http://www.military.com/NewsContent/0,13319,158468,00.html
- ^ http://www.defensetech.org/archives/003909.html
- ^ http://www.armytimes.com/news/2007/12/army_carbine_dusttest_071217/
- ^ http://www.armytimes.com/news/2007/12/army_m4_hearing_071217w/
- ^ US Trademark serial number 76335060 registration number 2734001 http://tess2.uspto.gov/bin/showfield?f=doc&state=75n9nl.3.13
[edit] References
- Klaus Nielsen. Animal Evolution: Interrelationships of the Living Phyla (2nd edition). Oxford Univ. Press, 2001.
- Knut Schmidt-Nielsen. Animal Physiology: Adaptation and Environment. (5th edition). Cambridge Univ. Press, 1997.
[edit] External links
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- Tree of Life Project
- Animal Diversity Web - University of Michigan's database of animals, showing taxonomic classification, images, and other information.
- ARKive - multimedia database of worldwide endangered/protected species and common species of UK.
- Scientific American Magazine (December 2005 Issue) - Getting a Leg Up on Land About the evolution of four-limbed animals from fish.
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