Crow language

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Crow Apsáalooke
Spoken in:	USA
Region:	Montana
Total speakers:	4,280
Language family:	Siouan-Catawban  Siouan   Missouri Valley Siouan    Crow
Language codes
ISO 639-1:	none
ISO 639-2:	nai
ISO 639-3:	cro
Note: This page may contain IPA phonetic symbols in Unicode.

Crow (native name: Apsáalooke; IPA: [əpsaːloːke]) is a Missouri Valley Siouan language spoken primarily by the Crow Nation in present-day southeastern Montana. It is has one of the largest populations of American Indian languages^[1] with 4,280 speakers according to the 1990 US Census.^[2]

It is closely related to Hidatsa spoken by the Hidatsa tribe of the Dakotas; the two languages are the only members of the Missouri Valley Siouan family.^[3][4] The ancestor of Crow-Hidatsa may have constituted the initial split from Proto-Siouan. Crow and Hidatsa are not mutually intelligible, however the two languages share many phonological features, cognates and have similar morphologies and syntax. The split between Crow and Hidatsa may have occurred from 300 and 800 years ago.^[5][6][7]

Contents 1 Current use 2 Phonology 2.1 Vowels 2.2 Consonants 2.3 Structure 2.4 Stress 2.5 Phonological Processes 3 Morphology 3.1 Nominal Morphology 3.1.1 Suffixes 3.1.2 Prefixes 3.1.3 Compounding 3.1.4 Possession 3.1.5 Personal Names 3.1.6 Pronouns 3.2 Verbal Morphology 3.2.1 Active-Stative Verbs 3.2.2 Verb Chain 4 Syntax 4.1 Noun-phrase Syntax 4.2 Relative Clauses 5 References 6 Bibliography 7 External links

[edit] Current use

According to Ethnologue with figures from 1998, 77% of Crow people over 66 years old speak the language; "some" parents and older adults, "few" high school students and "no pre-schoolers" speak Crow. 80% of the Crow Nation prefers to speak in English.^[8]

However, R. Graczyk claims in his A Grammar of Crow (2007) that "[u]nlike many other native languages of North America in general, and the northern plain in particular, the Crow language still exhibits considerable vitality: there are fluent speakers of all ages, and at least some children are still acquiring Crow as their first language." Many of the younger population who do not speak Crow are able to understand it. Almost all of those who do speak Crow are also bilingual in English.^[9] Graczyk cites the reservation community as the reason for both the high level of bilingual Crow-English speakers and the continued use and prevalence of the Crow language. Daily contact with non-American Indians on the reservation for over one hundred years has led to high usage of English. Traditional culture within the community, however, has preserved the language via religious ceremonies and the traditional clan system. "[T]he Crow language is the regular medium of communication for a large segment of the population."^[10][11]

[edit] Phonology

[edit] Vowels

There are five distinct vowels in Crow, which occur either long or short with the exception of the mid vowels.

	Short		Long
	Front	Back	Front	Back
High (close)	i	u	iː	uː
Mid			eː	oː
Low (open)	a		aː
Diphthong			ia	ua

There is also a marginal dipththong ea (IPA: [ea]) that only occurs in two native Crow stems: déaxa 'clear' and béaxa 'intermittent'.

[edit] Consonants

Crow has a very sparse consonant inventory, much like many other languages of the Great Plains.

		Labial	Alveolar	Palatal	Velar	Labiovelar	Glottal
Plosive	plain	p	t	ch [tʃ]	k		(ʔ)
	voiced	(b)	(d)
Fricative	voiceless		s	sh [ʃ]	x
Sonorant		m	n				h
Lateral Approximant	voiced		(l)
Glides	voiced					(w) [w]

Stops are aspirated word-initially, word-finally, when geminated (e.g. [ppʰ]) and when following another stop (e.g. [ptʰ]). Stops in a consonant cluster with h as the initial radical (hp, ht, hk) are unaspirated and lax. Gemination in stops only occurs intervocalically. Intervocalic single, non-geminating stops are lax, unaspirated, and generally voiced. The difference between voiced stops b and d (allophones of m and n) and voiceless stops is hardly discernible when following a fricative, since both are unaspirated and lax. The phoneme k has a palatalized allophone [kʲ] that occurs after i, e, ch and sh, often word-finally.

Fricatives are tense; they are only lax when intervocalic. Palatal sh is often voiced intervocalically; s is sometimes voiced intervocalically; x is never voiced. The alveolar fricative /s/ has an optional allophone /h/ in phrase-initial position:

• sáapa "what" > [háapa]
• sapée "who" > [hapée]

Sonorants voiced /m/ and /n/ have three allophones: w and l intervocalically, b and d word initially and following an obstruent, and m and n in all other conditions. In conservative speech, l is realized as a tapped r, however in general cases it is realized as l, perhaps in due part to the influence of English. Word initially, b is optional for /m/, though b is more commonly realized. The glottal sonorant /h/ assimilates to the nasality of the following segment, but retains its voicelessness. When following i or e or preceding ch, /h/ may be realized as an alveopalatal fricative.

[edit] Structure

Vowel sequences across morpheme boundaries can be quite varied, but short vowels cannot appear alone in the morpheme: V:V (long+short), V:V: (long+long) and diphthong+V (short). Word finally, only a (in a diphthong), o, and u (allomorphs of the plural suffix) can occur after a long vowel.

A wide variety of consonant clusters can occur in Crow. All consonants except for /h/ can be geminated. Voiced labials and dentals (phonemic m and n, allophones b, m, w and d, n, l) are resistant to clustering. Because they only occur intervocallically, l and w do not occur in clusters. The plosive allophones b and d only occur in clusters as the second consonant and only at morpheme boundaries. The nasal allophones m and n can only occur with each other with the exception of nm, or occur with h at a morpheme boundary. Clusters in general occur at morphemic bounderies.

Some morphemic constraints:

• A word begins either with a V (long or short) or a single C; no word-initial consonant clusters
• Consonant clusters only occur word-internally; exception: sht as a single morpheme is an emphatic sentence-final declarative marker.
• A word can end in any C except for p and x; ch only occurs in one word (iach) as a plural demonstrative
• All lexical nouns and verb stems end in a vowel
• Generally, non-derived noun and verb stems consist of between 1-3 syllables.
• Only V: or diphthongs occur in one-syllable word

[edit] Stress

Stress in Crow is phonemic. The position of the stress in the stem is determined lexically. In general, morphemes, including virtually all noun and verbal stems, are inherently stressed. There are two regular qualifications: (1) stress placement in active verb inflectional paradigms in predictable from conjugation, and (2) accent short vowels in a word-initial syllable are generally followed by a consonant cluster, while accented long vowels in a word-initial syllable are generally followed by a single consonant. If a vowel is short, it may be stressed or unstressed. If long, it may be stressed or unstressed; if stressed, the stress falling on either mora of the long vowel. With diphthongs, either the long vowel or the off-glide may bear the stress.

Stress helps predict the tones of all the vowels in a word: stressed vowels are high in pitch; all vowels following the stressed vowel are low in pitch; all short vowels preceding the stressed vowel are low in pitch; all long vowels preceding the stressed vowel are high in pitch; short vowels occurring between a long vowel and the accented vowel assimilate to a high pitch.

In words composed of more than one morpheme, there are several rules (with a few exceptions) to determine the placement of the stress:

• If the first stressed morpheme is stressed anywhere except for the final mora of a stem-final vowel, the subsequent morpheme is unstressed.
• If the first stressed morpheme has its accent of the stem-final vowel mora, that morpheme loses its stress.
• If the morpheme following the first stress lacks lexical stress, the stress remains on the first morpheme.
• If a stress stem-final vowel is deleted when the following morpheme lacks lexical stress, the stress is transferred to the preceding vowel mora of the deleted vowel.

Exceptions:

• A few stems with final falling accent have long high stress for the purposes of word formation.
• The punctual aspectual marker áhi overrides the regular word accent - it is always accented
• The exclamative sentence-final marker wík is stressed in addition to the stress of the stem to which it is combined. Vowel morae that occur between the first stress and the exclamative suffix are low in pitch.

[edit] Phonological Processes

There are a number of phonological processes constituting Crow:

• short vowel deletion: stem-final short vowels are deleted at a morpheme boundary unless a three-consonant cluster or a nasal plus voiceless obstruent would occur. Stem-final vowels do not delete before dak, the coordinate noun-phrase conjunction. Sentence-final evidential suffixes also do not cause the final short vowel to be deleted.
• nasal assimilation: n assimilates to m in a cluster; nm clusters do not occur.
• sibilant assimilation: alveolar s and ss are realized as /sh/ at morpheme boundaries before all consonants except x and s.
• vowel neutralization: word-finally, stem-final short vowels i, a and u are neutralized to their corresponding mid nonround or round vowel: i, a become e; u becomes o.
• identical vowel reduction: with suffixes beginning with a, sequences of 3-4 identical vowel morae are reduced to two (aa-a and aa-aa are reduced to aa); exceptions are compounds and prefixes.
• long vowel reduction before h: long vowels shorten before h in a syllable coda.
• final schwa deletion: the final schwa of a diphthong is delete before suffixes beginning with a and before the plural; before other vowels, it is otherwise retained.
• palatal-dental alternation: stem-final ch and t are complementary; t occurs before a-initial suffixes and plural u, and ch everywhere else. This relations holds parallel for š - s; and geminates čč and šš. The č and š alternates occur before non-low vowels, where as t and s occur before low vowels. There are, however, a few exceptions to this complementary relationship, therefore these phonemes cannot be considered as allophones.
• palatal-velar alternation: there is a lexically conditioned č to k alternation; k occurs before the plural and before suffixes beginning with a, not producing t.
• stem ablaut: lexically conditioned alternation affecting stem-final long vowels triggered by the plural morphemes, the imperative, and a-initial suffixes. (ii to aa ablaut; ee to ii ablaut; ee to aa ablaut.

[edit] Morphology

Crow is a polysynthetic language as compounding occurs. Crow forms words by joining morphemic affixes each with a specific function or meaning attached to it.

[edit] Nominal Morphology

Nominal derivational morphology is formed from affixes and by compounding.

There are two noun stems in Crow: basic and derived. Basic stems consist of usually one to three syllables, though rarely four, and always end in a vowel. Monosyllabic stems have long vowels or diphthongs.

• bií - "stone, rock"
• bía - "woman"

Derived stems are formed by affixation or compounding. The vast majority of nouns in Crow are formed from the various derivations from a certain small set of basic stems.

[edit] Suffixes

An exhaustive list of nominal suffixes:

• aachí/lichí - ‘approximative’: aachí follows a stem-final short vowel, lichí follows a stem-final long vowel. Marks resemblance or similarity: 'kind of, sort of, like, (temporal) around the time of.'
• kaáshi - ‘real, true; very’
• káata - ‘diminutive’: Can add the diminutive meaning 'small, little' or the endearing, affectionate meaning 'dear' according to the semantics of the noun.
• kíishi - ‘sportive, imitative’: Marks resemblance or imitation.
• táa(hi)li - ‘real, genuine’: Marks an object's reality, its genuineness. Often reduced to táali.
• ahi - ‘here and there’: Most commonly occurs with verbs, though occasionally is attached with nouns.
• ht(aa) - ‘even’: Marks concessive subordinate clauses as 'although, even though, even if.' Also occurs as a noun suffix glossed as 'even.' Htaa is a rare suffix that combines with the bare nominal stem of the noun.

[edit] Prefixes

Prefixes will render a relative clause into a derived noun.

• ak - 'agent nominalizer': creates agentive nouns (ex. 'singer', 'dancer') from active verbs or verbs plus incorporated objects.
• ala - 'locative, temporal, or manner nominalizer': 'where, when, how' derived from verbs or verbs plus incorporated nouns. In some cases, ala may follow the noun creating a lexicalized relative clause.
• baa - 'indefinite nominalizer': Derived from stative verbs, inalienably possessed nouns plus stative verbs, active transtivie verbs, and from active intransitive verbs.
• ii - 'instrumental nominalizer': Derived from active transitive and intransitive verbs, and from transitive verbs plus incorporated nouns.
• bale - 'depossessivizer': Allows an in inalienably possessed noun to occur without a possessor.

[edit] Compounding

There are two basic types of compounding in Crow: noun-noun compounds and noun-verb compounds.

Noun-noun compounds often involve a whole-part relationship: the first noun refers to the whole and the second to the part. Members of the compound may also be themselves compounds or derived nouns.

• íi-wili 'salive' < íi 'mouth' + bilí 'water'
• áal-isshi 'sleeve' < áali 'arm' + ísshi 'container

Noun-verb compounds consist of a noun plus a stative verb. There are a number of select exceptions.

[edit] Possession

Nouns are classified as either inalienably or alienably possessed, according to which possessive markers they occur with. Inalienably possessed nouns are those that are inherently possessed or nondetachable associations, specifically body parts and family members, opposed to alienably possessed nouns whose entity is not inherently possessed. This rule is not absolute as some body parts and kin nouns can be considered alienable and some nouns with close associations to its possessor (i.e. aasúu 'his house', isaashkakaáshi 'her dog') can be considered inalienable.

The affixed possession paradigm for inalienable and alienable possessives can be derived. The alienable possessives only use the first consonant of the the alienable prefixes and do not mark the possessor when the prefix begins with a vowel. The final suffix transforms into a diphthong from /-o/.

	Alienable		Inalienable
	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
1st Person	bas-{root}	bas-{root}-o	b-{root}	b-{root}-úua
2nd Person	dís-{root}	dís-{root}-o	d-{root}	d-{root}-uua
3rd Person	is-{root}	is-{root}-o	0-{root}	0-{root}-úua

[edit] Personal Names

Personal names constitute a distinct class of nouns in Crow. They are determined by the definite determiner /sh/ suffix to the stem rather than the citation form.

[edit] Pronouns

Crow has three pronominal forms: bound; emphatic and contrastive; and interrogative-indefinite pronouns. There is a correlation between morphology and syntax between the first two types. Argumentative pronouns are generally bound whereas emphatic and contrastive pronouns are generally independent. Bound pronominals function as direct and oblique arguments.

• A-set pronominals mark only subjects of active verbs, both transitive and intransitive.
• B-set pronominals mark subjects of stative verbs, direct objects, and objects of postpositions.

Bound Pronominal Stems:

	A-Set		B-Set
	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
1st Person	baa	baa+PL	bii	balee
2nd Person	dá(a)	dá(a)+PL	dii	dii+PL
3rd Person	0	0+PL	0	0+PL

[edit] Verbal Morphology

Verbal derivational morphology is composed of prefixes, suffixes, one infix (chi "again; possessive reflexive") and reduplication, which denotes an "iterative, distributive, or intensive sense to the meaning of the stem^[12]."

[edit] Active-Stative Verbs

The verb types in Crow are determined semantically. Crow is an active stative language, meaning that the subjects of the active verbs are treated differently than the subjects of the stative verbs. The verbs are marked according to A-set (active) or B-set (stative) pronominals.

Active Verbs: may be intransitive, transitive, or ditransitive. An intransitive verb takes a subject (SV), a transitive verb takes a subject and an object (SOV) and a ditransitive verb takes a subject and two objects (SO₁O₂V). The subject of an active verb that is the head of the relative clause is marked by ak, which is always animate.

Stative Verbs: may have zero (impersonal), one, or two nominal arguments. In a relative clause, the head noun is marked with m or in elevated discourse, dak. There may also be an absence of marking on the head noun where the entire relative clause is marked wiht the indefinite nonspecific determiner m.

[edit] Verb Chain

Crow has a fairly complex ordering of verb phrase constituents. The following table demonstrates simple constructions of active-state intransitive and transitive verbs based on the first person.

	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8	9	10	11
	Indirect Object	Indirect Object No.	Direct Object	Subject: Transitive Verb	Subject: Intransitive Verb	Subject No.	Verb Stem	Subject: Transitive Causative	Causative	Subject No.	Mood
	B-Set Pronominals		A-Set Pronominals
1					baa		Active Intransitive			Singular-Plural	Mood
2			bii			Singular-Plural	Active Intransitive	[b]	aa	Singular-Plural	Mood
3			bii	baa		Singular-Plural	Active Transitive			Singular-Plural	Mood
4	bii	Singular-Plural	bii			Singular-Plural	Active Transitive	wa	hchc	Singular-Plural	Mood
5					bii		Stative Intransitive			Singular-Plural	Mood
6			bii			Singular-Plural	Stative Intransitive			Singular-Plural	Mood

• 1-4) Active (“A-Set”) pronominals in Crow are very diverse coming in many different forms based of off the based bound form. They are patterned by a certain list of lexical and phonological factors, such as the dú(u) - by hand pattern which results in a 1sg bu and a 2sg di, or the dá(a) - by mouth pattern which results in a 1sg ba and a 2sg da.
• 2) For Active-Intransitive Causative Verbs, 1-2 person singular causitive (rank 10) is marked by aa as in chart, 1-2 person plural is marked by uu, 3rd person singular is marked by ee or a determined lexically, and 3rd person plural is marked by either uu, o, or iio determined lexically.
• 4) For Active-Transitive Causative Verbs, the the causative transitive verb subject is marked by wa in the first person, la in the second person and 0 in the third person. The Causative affixes are hchc (singular) and hk (plural).
• Mood in Crow is expressed by a variety of post-positionals. The standard indicative morpheme is k.

The verb chain constituents are, of course, much more complicated. Following is a concise list of the rank ordering of each type element:

• Prefixes:
  • I: Adverbial proclitics:
  • II: B-set pronominal elements
  • III: A-set pronominal elements
  • IV: Locative prefixes
  • V: Instrumental prefixes
• Stem:
  • VI: Stem modification - reduplication or prefixation and infixation of chi/ku "again"
• Suffixes
  • VII: Derivational suffixes
  • VIII: Punctual áhi
  • IX: Continuative, modal, or benefactive auxiliary
  • X: Habitual i
  • XI: Plural
  • XII: Subordinate clause markers
    • a. Speech act and evidential markers
    • b. Switch reference markers
    • c. Subordinate clause markers
    • d. Clauses without final markers
  • XIII: Negative ssaa

[edit] Syntax

Crow is a Subject-Object-Verb (SOV) language; it is a verb-final and head marking. In noun phrases, the order is possessor-possessum, with the person marker of the possessor identified by a prefix to the possessum. Subordinate clauses precede matrix clauses, and are marked by a suffixed clause-final marker. Relative clauses are internally headed. Crow has postpositional phrases, with the postposition often occurring as a prefix to the following verb. There is no distinct category of adjectives; instead, stative verbs function as noun phrase modifiers.

Crow is an active-stative language, with verbs divided into two classes, active (both transitive and intransitive) and stative, largely on semantic grounds. This is also often called a "split intransitive" language^[13].

[edit] Noun-phrase Syntax

Noun-phrases in Crow are configured in a generative grammar according to the following rules:

• a. NP → N’ (DET)
• b.
  • i. N’ → N
  • ii. N’ → [s...N’ head...] (relative clause)
  • iii. N’ → NP N’ (genitive/possessive)
  • iv. N’ → PP N’ (PP modifier)
• c. Q → DP Q (quantifier phrase)
• d. DP → DEM NP (demonstrative phrase)
• e. NP → NP NP (appositive)
• f. NP → S (COMP) (nominalization)
• g.
  • i. NP → (NP CONJ)^n (coordinate NP with dak)
  • ii. NP → (N’ CONJ)^n DET (coordinate N’ with xxo)

There are two phrases that are subordinate to the NP (noun-phrase): (1) the DP (demonstrative phrase) and (2) the QP (quantifier phrase).

Simple syntax, or a bare noun, can be marked as definite or indefinite by a suffixed determiner (DET). The definite suffix is marked as /-sh/ and the indefinite is marked as /-m/.

• a. NP → NP’:
  • bía-m (indefinite)
    • 'a woman'
  • iisáakshee-sh (definite)
    • 'the young man'

The determiner suffix is attached to the final word of the noun phrase, not just the agentitive noun.

• b. i. N’ → N
  • [bíakaate shoop-úu-m húulee-sh aw-ákee]-sh
  • girl four-PL-DET yesterday-DET 1A-see-DET
    • 'the four girls I saw yesterday'

Relative Clauses: N’ → [s...N’ head...]

• [iisáakshi-m búupchee-sh ak-ataalée]-sh aw-ákaa-k
  • young.man-DET ball-DET RELATIVIZER-steal-DET 1A-see-DECL
  • 'I saw the young man who stole the ball'

(See Section 4.2 Relative Clauses for more detail)

Genitive Clauses: N’ → NP N’

• [Clara-sh [is-íilaalee]] sapéen ataalí-?
  • Clara-DET 3POS-car who steal-INTERR
  • 'who stole Clara's car?'

Postpositional Phrases: N’ → PP N’

• [[dii-héel-uua] ham]-dappií-o-lahtaa
  • 2B-among-PL some-kill-PL-even.if
  • 'even if they kill some of you'

Quantifier Phrases: Q → DP Q There are two classes of quantifiers that are distinguished syntactically. The first class heads a quantifier phrases that takes a demonstrative (or in its stead, a noun phrase) as a its complement: xaxúa.

• hinne bía-sh [[[hileen [bachée-sh]] xaxúa] áxpa-m
  • this woman-DET these men-DET all marry-DS
  • this woman married all these men

The second class is a stative verb that may function as a nominal modifier. This class includes: ahú 'many, much', hawa 'some', kooshtá 'few', sáawi 'how many, so many, some', and the numerals. This class may also be followed by a determiner. They may also function as clausal predicates.

Demonstrative Phrases: Q → DP Q Demonstatives are deictic words; in Crow, they occur phrase-initially. They can also cooccur with determiners (ex. 'this the horse').

Appositives: NP → NP NP /ko/ (demonstrative) and /kon/ (appositive) are used to modify each other.

• [ko bachée-sh] [kon] día-k
  • that man-DET PRO do-DECL
  • 'that man is the one who did it'

[edit] Relative Clauses

Relative clauses in Crow are complex and subject to theoretical debates. There are two types of relative clauses in Crow: lexically headed and non-lexically headed. There are two basic relativizers /ak/ and /ala/, several composite forms based on ala plus baa 'indefinite pronoun' and instances with no relativizer. /ak/ indicates the subject of the relative clause is relativized and marks the subject as animate, and generally agentitive. It can occur in both lexically and non-lexically headed clauses. /ala/ may indicate a locative, temporal or manner adverbial is the head of the relative clause. In non-lexically headed relative clauses, /ala/ can sometimes be interpreted as the head of the clause itself. It can also occur in both lexically and non-lexically headed clauses. The relativizers are bound, with many exception, but they are generally prefixed to the word that contains the verb of the relative clause.

Relative clauses are marked with final determiners. If the definite referent of the relative clause has already been accounted in the discourse or is otherwise obvious, the relative clause is marked with the definite /-sh/. Relative clauses can also be marked with the indefinite determiner marker /-m/; generally this is used to imply that the referent is being introduced into the discourse for the first time. However, the nominal head is almost always marked by the indefinite determiner /-m/.

[edit] References

[edit] Bibliography

• Graczyk, R. A Grammar of Crow: Apsáaloke Aliláau. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press, 2007.
• Kaschube, D.V. Crow Texts. IJAL-NATS Monograph No. 2. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1978.
• Kaschube, D.V. Structural Elements of Crow. Doctor of Philosophy Dissertation, Department of Anthropology, Indiana University, June 1960. Ann Arbor, MI: University Microfilms, Inc., 1963.
• Kaschube, D.V. Structural Elements of Crow. Boulder, CO: University of Colorado Press, 1967.
• Lowie, R.H. "The Crow Language: Grammatical Sketch and Analyzed Text." American Archaeology and Ethnology, vol XXXIX 1942-1945. Berkeley and Los Angeles, CA: University of California Press, 1945: 1-139.
• Lowie, R.H. Crow Texts. Berkeley and Los Angeles, CA: University of California Press, 1960.
• Lowie, R.H. Crow Word Lists. Berkeley and Los Angeles, CA: University of California Press, 1960.

[edit] External links

• Crow Language on the Native Languages of the Americas site
• Official site of the Crow Nation