Croesus

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This article refers to the historical King of Lydia. For the opera by Reinhard Keiser, see Croesus (opera).
Croesus Receiving Tribute from a Lydian Peasant, by Claude Vignon.
Croesus Receiving Tribute from a Lydian Peasant, by Claude Vignon.

Croesus (pronounced /ˈkriːsəs/, CREE-sus) (595 BC – c. 547? BC) was the king of Lydia from 560/561 BC until his defeat by the Persians in about 547 BC.[1] The fall of Croesus made a profound impact on the Hellenes, providing a fixed point in their calendar. "By the fifth century at least," J.A.S. Evans remarked, "Croesus had become a figure of myth, who stood outside the conventional restraints of chronology."[2] Croesus was renowned for his wealth — Herodotus and Pausanias noted his gifts preserved at Delphi[3] — and in Greek and Persian cultures his name became a synonym for a wealthy man; in English, expressions such as "rich as Croesus" or "richer than Croesus" are used to indicate great wealth.[4]

Contents

[edit] Biography

Aside from a poetical account of Croesus on the pyre in Bacchylides, there are three classical accounts of Croesus. Herodotus presents the Lydian accounts[5] of the conversation with Solon (Histories 1.29-.33), the tragedy of Croesus' son Atys (Histories 1.34-.45) and the fall of Croesus (Histories 1.85-.89); Xenophon instances Croesus in his panegyric fictionalized biography of Cyrus: Cyropaedia, 7.1; and Ctesias, whose account[6] is also an encomium of Cyrus.

Born about 595 BC, Croesus received tribute from the Ionian Greeks but was friendlier to the Hellenes than his father had been, traditionally giving refuge at one point to the legendary Athenian statesman Adrastus. It was said that Adrastus exiled himself to Lydia after accidentally killing his brother. King Croesus welcomed him but then Adrastus accidentally killed Croesus' son, Atys. (Adrastus then committed suicide.) Croesus' uneasy relations with the Greeks obscures the larger fact that he was their last bastion of the Ionian Greeks against the increasing Persian power in Anatolia. He began preparing a campaign against Cyrus the Great of Persia. Before setting out he turned to the Delphic oracle and the oracle of Amphiaraus to inquire whether he should pursue this campaign and whether he should also seek an alliance. The oracles answered, with typical ambiguity, that if Croesus attacked the Persians, he would destroy a great empire – this would become one of the most famous oracular statements from Delphi.

Croesus was also advised to find out which Greek state was most powerful and to ally himself with it.[7]Croesus, now feeling secure, formed an alliance with Sparta in addition to those he had with Amasis II of Egypt and Nabonidus of Babylonia,[8] and launched his campaign against the Persian Empire in 547 BC.[9] He was intercepted near the Halys River in central Anatolia and an inconclusive battle was fought. As was usual in those days, the armies would disband for winter and Croesus did accordingly. Cyrus did not, however, and he attacked Croesus in Sardis, capturing him. It became clear that the powerful empire Croesus was about to destroy was his own.

In Bacchylides' ode,[10] composed for Hiero of Syracuse, who won the chariot race at Olympia in 468, Croesus with his wife and family mounted the funeral pyre, but before the flames could envelop the king, he was snatched up by Apollo and spirited away to the Hyperboreans. Herodotus' version includes Apollo in more "realistic" mode: Cyrus, repenting of the immolation of Croesus, could not put out the flames until Apollo intervened.[11]

[edit] Apollo's intervention

Croesus on the pyre, Attic red-figure amphora, 500–490 BC, Louvre (G 197)
Croesus on the pyre, Attic red-figure amphora, 500–490 BC, Louvre (G 197)

Herodotus tells us that in the Lydian account, Croesus was placed upon a great pyre by Cyrus' orders, for Cyrus wanted to see if any of the heavenly powers would appear to save him from being burned alive. The pile was set ablaze, and as Cyrus watched he saw Croesus mutter a word, "Solon". He asked the interpreters to find out why he said this word with such resignation and agony. The interpreters returned the answer that Solon had warned Croesus of the fickleness of good fortune: see Interview with Solon below. This touched Cyrus, who realized that he and Croesus were much the same man, and he bade the servants to quench the blazing fire as quickly as they could. They tried to do this, but the flames were not to be mastered. According to the story, Croesus called out to Apollo and prayed to him. The sky had been clear and the day without a breath of wind, but soon dark clouds gathered and a storm with rain of such violence that the flames were speedily extinguished. Cyrus, convinced by this that Croesus was a good man, made Croesus an advisor who served Cyrus well and later Cyrus's son by Cassandane, Cambyses.

It is not known when exactly Croesus died, although it is traditionally dated 547 BC, after Cyrus' conquest. In the Nabonidus Chronicle it is said that Cyrus "marched against the country -- , killed its king,[12] took his possessions, put there a garrison of his own." Unfortunately, all that remains of the name of the country are traces of the first cuneiform sign. It has long been assumed that this sign should have been LU, so that the country referred to would be Lydia, with Croesus as the king that was killed. However, J. Cargill has shown that this restoration was based upon wishful thinking rather than actual traces of the sign LU.[13] Instead, J. Oelsner and R. Rollinger have both read the sign as Ú, which might imply a reference to Urartu.[14] With Herodotus' account also being unreliable chronologically in this case, as J.A.S. Evans has demonstrated,[15] this means that we have no way of dating the fall of Sardis; theoretically, it may even have taken place after the fall of Babylon. Evans also asks what happened after the episode at the pyre and suggests that neither the Greeks nor the Babylonians knew what really happened to Croesus.

[edit] Reception history

The episode of Croesus' interview with Solon[16] reported by Herodotus[17] is in the nature of a philosophical disquisition on the subject "What man is happy?" It is legendary rather than historical. Croesus, secure in his own wealth and happiness, poses the question and is disappointed by Solon's response: that three have been happier than Croesus, Tellus, who died fighting for his country, and Kleobis and Biton, brothers who died peacefully in their sleep when their mother prayed for their perfect happiness, after they had demonstrated filial piety by drawing her to a festival in an oxcart themselves. Croesus' hubristic happiness was reversed by the tragic deaths of his accidentally-murdered son and, in Critias, his wife's suicide at the fall of Sardis. Thus the "happiness" of Croesus is presented as a moralistic exemplum of the fickleness of Tyche, a theme that gathered strength from the fourth century, revealing its late date.

Croesus' wealth remained proverbial beyond classical antiquity, and is often alluded to in English-language phrases like "as rich as Croesus". An early example is found in John Gower's 1390 poem Confessio Amantis, which lists "the tresor of Cresus" alongside other examples of great riches.[18]

[edit] See also

[edit] Notes

  1. ^ The English name Croesus comes from the Latin transliteration of the Greek Κροῖσος, in Arabic and Persian قارون, Qârun.
  2. ^ J.A.S. Evans, "What Happened to Croesus?" The Classical Journal 74.1 (October 1978:34-40) examines the legend and the date 547 BC.
  3. ^ Among them a lion of gold, which had tumbled from its perch upon a stack of ingots when the temple at Delphi burned but was preserved and displayed in the Treasury of the Corinthians, where Pausanias saw it (Pausanias 10.5.13). The temple burned in the archonship of Erxicleides, 548-47 BC.
  4. ^ The earliest known such usage in English was John Gower's in Confessio amantis v. 4730 (1390): "That if the tresor of Cresus / And al the gold Octovien, / Forth with the richesse Yndien / Of Perles and of riche stones, / Were al togedre myn at ones..." "Croesus". Oxford English Dictionary. Oxford University Press. 2nd ed. 1989.
  5. ^ Herodotus credits his Lydian sources for the fall of Croesus in Histories 1.87.
  6. ^ Lost: what survives is a meager epitome by Photius.
  7. ^ Herodotus 1.53.
  8. ^ Herodotus 1.69–70, 77.
  9. ^ Evans 1978 examines the conflicting dates implied in Herodotus.
  10. ^ Bacchylides Ode 3.23-62.
  11. ^ Just such an intervention in extinguishing a funeral pyre was adapted by Christian hagiographers as a conventional literary topos in the martyrdom of saints.
  12. ^ The verb is "annihilate"; F. Cornelius, "Kroisos", Gymnasium 54 (1967:346-47) notes that the verb can also mean "destroy [as a military power]" as well as "kill".
  13. ^ J. Cargill, "The Nabonidus chronicle and the fall of Lydia: Consensus with feet of clay", American Journal of Ancient History 2 (1977:97-116).
  14. ^ J. Oelsner, "Review of R. Rollinger, Herodots babylonischer logos: Eine kritische Untersuchung der Glaubwürdigkeitsdiskussion (Innsbruck: Institut für Sprachwissenschaft 1993)", Archiv für Orientforschung 46/47 (1999/2000:378-80); R. Rollinger, "The Median "empire", the end of Urartu and Cyrus' the Great campaign in 547 B.C. (Nabonidus Chronicle II 16)", Ancient West & East 7 (2008:forthcoming).
  15. ^ Evans 1978:35-38.
  16. ^ A.E. Raubitschek argued (in Classical Philology 58 (1963:167f) that the story of Croesus' encounter with Solon arose from a tradition of his quoting Solon on his funeral pyre.
  17. ^ Herodotus 1.29–33.
  18. ^ Crœsus (subscription required). Oxford English Dictionary. Retrieved on 2008-06-07.

[edit] External links

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Preceded by
Alyattes II		 King of Lydia
595?–c.547? BC		 Succeeded by
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