Chinese pagoda

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The Liuhe Pagoda (Six Harmonies Pagoda) of Hangzhou, Zhejiang province, China, built in 1165 AD during the Song Dynasty.
The Liuhe Pagoda (Six Harmonies Pagoda) of Hangzhou, Zhejiang province, China, built in 1165 AD during the Song Dynasty.
For the landmark in Birmingham, see Chinese Pagoda.

Chinese Pagodas (Chinese: 塔; pinyin: Tǎ) are a traditional part of Chinese architecture, introduced from India along with Buddhism as protective structures for Buddhist relics.[1] In addition to religious use, since ancient times Chinese pagodas have been praised for the spectacular views which they offer, and many famous poems in Chinese history attest to the joy of scaling pagodas. Ancient Buddhas would come to visit there.

Contents

[edit] History

The Lingxiao Pagoda of Zhengding, Hebei, built in 1045 AD during the Song Dynasty, with little change in later renovations.
The Lingxiao Pagoda of Zhengding, Hebei, built in 1045 AD during the Song Dynasty, with little change in later renovations.

The modern pagoda is an evolution of the Indian stupa, a tomb-like structure where sacred relics could be kept safe and venerated.[2] The architectural structure of the stupa has spread across Asia, taking on many diverse forms as details specific to different regions are incorporated into the overall design.

The Chinese word for stupa, ta, is an abbreviated translation (from tapo) of the Sanskrit Stupa. The origins of the word Pagoda are obscure. In modern usage, the word Stupa and Pagoda refer to the same thing.[3]

The Pagoda's original purpose was to house relics and sacred writings. [4] This purpose was popularized due to the efforts of Buddhist missionaries, pilgrims, rulers, and ordinary devotees to seek out, distribute, and extol Buddhist relics.[3]

The earliest base-structure type for Chinese pagodas were square-base and circular-base. By the 10th century the Chinese began to build octagonal-base pagoda towers. The highest Chinese pagoda from the pre-modern age is the Liaodi Pagoda of Kaiyuan Monastery, Dingxian, Hebei province, completed in the year 1055 AD under Emperor Renzong of Song and standing at a total height of 84 m (275 ft). The pagoda was built of brick and stone and has the classic gradual tiered eaves marking each story, and has a section of its walls partially open at one side, which allows one to view the interior of the pagoda, the inner column shaped as another pagoda inside, and the thickness of the pagoda's walls.[5] Although it no longer stands, the tallest pre-modern pagoda in Chinese history was the 100 m (330 ft) tall wooden pagoda of Chang'an, built by Emperor Yang of Sui, but this tower no longer stands.[6] The Liaodi Pagoda is the tallest pre-modern pagoda still standing, yet in April of 2007 a new wooden pagoda at the Tianning Temple of Changzhou was opened to the public; this pagoda is now the tallest in China, standing at 154 m (505 ft).

[edit] Symbolism and geomancy

The Xumi Pagoda, built in 636 AD during the Tang Dynasty.
The Xumi Pagoda, built in 636 AD during the Tang Dynasty.

Han iconography is noticeable in Chinese Pagoda architecture. The image of the Shakyamuni Buddha in the abhaya mudra is also noticeable in some Chinese pagodas, while Buddhist iconography can be observed in the symbolism embodied in the pagoda. [7] In an article on Buddhist elements in Han art, Wu Hung suggests that in these tombs, Buddhist iconography was so well incorporated into native Chinese traditions that a unique system of symbolism had been developed.[8]

The late Ming Dynasty (1368–1644) scholar-official Zhang Tao—a local magistrate of Sheh County in Jiangsu—had a pagoda built precariously at the summit of a large hill, a placement which he believed would influence the success of young students taking the examinations for a civil service degree.[9] When a pagoda of Yihuang County in Fuzhou collapsed in 1210 during the Song Dynasty, all the local inhabitants believed that the unfortunate event was directly correlated with the recent failure of many exam candidates in the prefectural examinations for official degrees, the prerequisite for appointment in civil service.[10] The pagoda was rebuilt in 1223 and had a list inscribed on it of the recently successful examination candidates, in hopes that it would reverse the trend and win the county supernatural, cosmic favor.[10]

[edit] Construction Materials

[edit] Wood

The 40 m (131 ft) tall Songyue Pagoda of 523 AD, the oldest existent stone pagoda in China.
The 40 m (131 ft) tall Songyue Pagoda of 523 AD, the oldest existent stone pagoda in China.

From the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Southern and Northern Dynasties (~25-589) pagodas were mostly built of wood, as were other ancient Chinese structures. Wooden pagodas are highly resistant to earthquakes, however many have burnt down, and wood is also prone to both natural rot and insect infestation.

Examples of wooden pagodas:

The literature of subsequent eras also provides evidence of the domination of wooden pagoda construction in this period. The famous Tang Dynasty poet, Du Mu, once wrote:

480 Buddhist temples of the Southern Dynasties,
uncountable towers and pagodas stand in the misty rain.

The oldest extant fully-wooden pagoda standing in China today is the Pagoda of Fugong Temple in Ying County, Shanxi Province, built in the 11th century during the Song Dynasty/Liao Dynasty (refer to Architecture section in Song Dynasty).

[edit] Transition to brick and stone

The brick-constructed Giant Wild Goose Pagoda, built by 652 and rebuilt in 704, during the Tang Dynasty.
The brick-constructed Giant Wild Goose Pagoda, built by 652 and rebuilt in 704, during the Tang Dynasty.

During the Northern Wei and Sui dynasties (386-618) experiments began with the construction of brick and stone pagodas. Even at the end of the Sui, however, wood was still the most common material. For example, Emperor Wen of the Sui Dynasty (reigned 581-604) once issued a decree for all counties and prefectures to build pagodas to a set of standard designs, however since they were all built of wood none have survived. Only the Songyue Pagoda has survived, a circular-based pagoda built out of stone in 523 AD.

[edit] Brick

The earliest extant brick pagoda is the 40 m tall Songyue Pagoda in Dengfeng Country, Henan.[11] This curved, circle-based pagoda was built in 523 during the Northern Wei Dynasty, and has survived for 15 centuries.[11] Much like the later pagodas found during the following Tang Dynasty, this temple featured tiers of eaves encircling its frame, as well as a spire crowing the top. Its walls are 2.5 m thick, with a groundfloor diameter of 10.6 m in length. Another early brick pagoda is the Sui Dynasty Guoqing Pagoda built in 597.

[edit] Stone

The earliest large-scale stone pagoda is a Four Gates Pagoda at Licheng, Shandong, built in 611 during the Sui Dynasty. Like the Songyue Pagoda, it also features a spire at its top, and is built in the pavilion style.

[edit] Brick and stone

The Iron Pagoda of Kaifeng, built in 1049 AD during the Song Dynasty
The Iron Pagoda of Kaifeng, built in 1049 AD during the Song Dynasty

One of the earliest brick and stone pagodas was a three-storey construction built in the (first) Jin Dynasty (265-420), by Wang Jun of Xiangyang. However, it is now destroyed.

Brick and stone went on to dominate Tang, Song, Liao and Jin Dynasty pagoda construction. An example of such would be the Giant Wild Goose Pagoda (652 AD), built during the early Tang Dynasty. The Porcelain Pagoda of Nanjing has been one of the most famous brick and stone pagoda in China throughout history.

[edit] De-emphasis over time

Pagodas, in keeping with the tradition of the White Horse Temple, were generally placed in the center of temples until the Sui and Tang dynasties. During the Tang, the importance of the main hall was elevated and the pagoda was moved beside the hall, or out of the temple compound altogether. In the early Tang, Dàoxuān wrote a Standard Design for Buddhist Temple Construction in which the main hall replaced the pagoda as the center of the temple.

The design of temples was also influenced by the use of traditional Chinese residences as shrines, after they were philanthropically donated by the wealthy or the pious. In such pre-configured spaces, building a central pagoda might not have been either desirable or possible.

Jade Buddha Temple in Shanghai follows the Song Dynasty multi-courtyard design, and does not feature a pagoda. The main hall is at the center.
Jade Buddha Temple in Shanghai follows the Song Dynasty multi-courtyard design, and does not feature a pagoda. The main hall is at the center.

In the Song Dynasty (960-1279), the Chan (Zen) sect developed a new 'seven part structure' for temples. The seven parts - the Buddha hall, dharma hall, monks' quarters, depository, gate, pure land hall and toilet facilities - completely exclude pagodas, and can be seen to represent the final triumph of the traditional Chinese palace/courtyard system over the original central-pagoda tradition established 1000 years earlier by the White Horse Temple in 67. Although they were built outside of the main temple itself, large pagodas in the tradition of the past were still built. This includes the two Ming Dynasty pagodas of Famen Temple and the Chongwen Pagoda in Jingyang of Shaanxi Province.

A prominent, later example of converting a palace to a temple is Beijing's Yonghe Temple, which was the residence of Yongzheng Emperor before he ascended the throne. It was donated for use as a lamasery after his death in 1735.

[edit] Styles of eras

[edit] Han Dynasty

Examples of Han Dynasty era tower architecture before Buddhist influence and before the development of the Chinese pagoda:

Eastern Han Dynasty pottery tomb model, 1st–2nd century

Mortuary Chamber Pediment, Embossed Terracotta, Western Han Dynasty (202 BC – 9 AD)

[edit] Sui and Tang

Pagodas built during the Sui and Tang Dynasty usually had a square base, with a few exceptions such as the Daqin Pagoda:

Four Gates Pagoda, built in 611.

The Daqin Pagoda, built in 640.

The Small Wild Goose Pagoda, built in 709.

The Three Pagodas, 9th and 10th centuries.

[edit] Song, Liao, Jin, Yuan

Pagodas of the Five Dynasties, Northern and Southern Song, Liao, Jin, and Yuan Dynasties incorporated many new styles, with a greater emphasis on hexagonal and octagonal bases for pagodas:

The Huqiu Tower, built in 961.

Longhua Pagoda, built in 977.

Pagoda of Fogong Temple, built in 1056.

Pizhi Pagoda, built by 1063.

Pagoda of Tianning Temple in Beijing, 1120.

The Beisi Pagoda, built in 1162

The Chengling Pagoda, built in 1189.

Pagoda of Bailin Temple, built by 1330.

[edit] Ming and Qing

Pagodas in the Ming and Qing Dynasties generally inherited the styles of previous eras, although there were some minor variations:

Zhenjue Temple, built in 1473.

The Pagoda of Cishou Temple, built in 1576.

The Fragrant Hills Pagoda, built in 1780.

[edit] See also

[edit] Notes

  1. ^ World Encyclopedia. Oxford University Press. Published 1980.
  2. ^ The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia University Press
  3. ^ a b The Impact of Buddhism on Chinese Material Culture By John Kieschnick. Published 2003. Princeton University Press . ISBN 0691096767. pg 31
  4. ^ A World History of Architecture By Michael W. Fazio, Marian Moffett, Lawrence Wodehouse. Published 2003. McGraw-Hill Professional. ISBN 0071417516.
  5. ^ Steinhardt, 387.
  6. ^ Benn, 62.
  7. ^ The Impact of Buddhism on Chinese Material Culture By John Kieschnick. Published 2003. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0691096767. page 83
  8. ^ The Impact of Buddhism on Chinese Material Culture By John Kieschnick. Published 2003. Princeton University Press . ISBN 0691096767. page 84
  9. ^ Brook, 7.
  10. ^ a b Hymes, 30.
  11. ^ a b Steinhardt, 383.

[edit] References

  • Benn, Charles (2002). China's Golden Age: Everyday Life in the Tang Dynasty. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-517665-0.
  • Brook, Timothy. (1998). The Confusions of Pleasure: Commerce and Culture in Ming China. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-22154-0
  • Hymes, Robert P. (1986). Statesmen and Gentlemen: The Elite of Fu-Chou, Chiang-Hsi, in Northern and Southern Sung. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521306310.
  • Steinhardt, Nancy Shatzman (1997). Liao Architecture. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press.

[edit] External links