Chinese imperialism
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Historically, ancient China has been one of the world's oldest empires. In ancient Chinese political theory, relations between foreign states were governed by the tributary system. Since the Emperor of China held the Mandate of Heaven, his rule was universal and extended to All under heaven. Sometimes neighboring states were actual protectorates or vassal states over which China exerted large amounts of influence, while in other cases foreign states merely acknowledged China's nominal suzerainty in order to gain access to Chinese trade, which took place through the tributary system.
The first dynasty to expand to most of China proper was the Qin Dynasty, which consolidated its power with efficient administration and a strong central bureaucracy, and expanded outwards, annexing the other six kingdoms of the Warring States Period as well as other territory populated by non-Chinese speaking peoples, such as the Yue. Throughout its history, Chinese territory would vary depending on the changing fortunes of successive dynasties, alternating between periods of Chinese expansion and foreign invasion or rule. Chinese civilization expanded outwards in all directions from the area around the Yellow River, but especially towards the south. Several historical migrations, driven by war, natural disasters, foreign invasions, and/or population pressures, led to Han Chinese migration and settlement of new territories to the south, assimilating or displacing local peoples. In contrast, the north was largely a frontier inhabited by militaristic steppe peoples, and protected by the Great Wall. Chinese states often engaged in military campaigns in the north, but rarely established lasting control.
China's last major period of territorial expansion was under the militaristic Qing Dynasty, whose rulers were not ethnically Han Chinese but Manchu. Their martial skills, non-Han origin and technological advantages allowed them to expand their influence in Mongolia, Central Asia, Tibet, and Taiwan. However in the 19th and early 20th century the Qing would themselves succumb to the militarily superior European powers engaging in imperialism in Asia, leading to their final collapse in 1911. During this period, China lost parts of its empire including Hong Kong (to Britain), Macau (to Portugal), Taiwan and the Pescadores (to Japan), northwestern Xinjiang and Outer Manchuria (to Russia), as well as tributaries such as Indochina (to France), Burma (to Britain), Korea and the Ryukyu Islands (to Japan). Under the Republic of China which succeeded the Chinese empire in 1912, Tannu Uriankhai was lost to Russia, while Mongolia became a Soviet satellite.
The Republic of China and the People's Republic of China (established 1949) have since attempted, with varying degrees of success, to re-incorporate some areas that fell outside of Chinese control before and after the collapse of the Qing Dynasty. The People's Republic of China's control over Tibet, Xinjiang, and Inner Mongolia, which contain majority non-Han populations, is seen by some locals[citation needed] and outsiders as modern-day imperialism, as are subsequent organized campaigns[citation needed] of Han immigration into these regions. This is often described by critics as demographic swamping, aimed at destroying the uniqueness of those regions, but defended as the innocuous, routine and benevolent importing of labourers and professionals into sparsely populated and poorly developed regions by supporters. Finally, the PRC's territorial claim over Taiwan, which is still controlled by the Republic of China, is also seen as an example of imperialism by critics. In all these cases supporters consider China's policy to be that of defending the PRC's right to succeed the ROC as well as defend the territorial integrity of China.
