CAR and CDR
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Introduced in the Lisp programming language, car (pronounced /ˈkɑr/, just like the English word "car") and cdr (/ˈkʌdər/ or /ˈkʊdər/) are primitive operations upon linked lists composed of cons cells. A cons cell is composed of two pointers; the car operation extracts the first pointer, and the cdr operation extracts the second.
Thus, the expression (car (cons x y)) evaluates to x, and (cdr (cons x y)) evaluates to y.
When cons cells are used to implement singly-linked lists (rather than trees and other more complicated structures), the car operation returns the first element of the list, while cdr returns the rest of the list. For this reason, the operations are sometimes given the names first and rest or head and tail.
[edit] Origin of the names car and cdr
Lisp was originally implemented on the IBM 704 computer, in the late 1950s. The 704 hardware had special support for splitting a 36-bit machine word into four parts, an "address part" and "decrement part" of 15 bits each and a "prefix part" and "tag part" of three bits each. Precursors to Lisp included functions car (short for "Contents of the Address part of Register number"), cdr ("Contents of the Decrement part of Register number"), cpr and ctr, each of which took a machine address as an argument, loaded the corresponding word from memory, and extracted the appropriate bits. The 704 assembler macro for cdr was
- LXD JLOC,4
- CLA 0,4
- PDX 0,4
- PXD 0,4[1]
A machine word could be reassembled by cons, which took four arguments (a,d,p,t). The prefix and tag parts were dropped in the early stages of Lisp's design, leaving CAR, CDR, and a two-argument CONS.[2]
The names first and rest are common modern alternatives to car and cdr due to their greater clarity. However, car and cdr have the advantage that short compositions of the functions can be given short and more or less pronounceable names of the same form. In Lisp, (cadr '(1 2 3)) is the equivalent of (car (cdr '(1 2 3))); its value is 2 (the first item of the rest of (1 2 3)). Similarly, (caar '((1 2) (3 4))) is the same as (car (car '((1 2) (3 4)))); its value is 1. Most Lisps set a limit on the number of composed forms they support; Common Lisp and Scheme both provide forms with up to four repetitions of the a and d.
[edit] References
- ^ Portions from NILS' LISP PAGES- http://t3x.dyndns.org/LISP/QA/carcdr.html
- ^ McCarthy, John (1979-02-12). History of Lisp.
- Russel, S. (undated, c. late 1950's) Writing and Debugging Programs. MIT Artificial Intelligence Laboratory Memo 6.
- Faase, Frans (2006-01-10). The origin of CAR and CDR in LISP.
- Graham, Paul (1996). ANSI Common Lisp. Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-370875-6.
