Aztec warfare
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Aztec warfare concerns the aspects associated with the militaristic conventions, forces, weaponry and strategic expansions conducted by the Late Postclassic Aztec civilization of Mesoamerica, including particularly the military history of the Aztec Triple Alliance involving the city-states of Tenochtitlan, Texcoco, Tlacopan and other allied polities of the central Mexican region.
The Aztec armed forces were typically composed of a large number of commoners (yaoquizqueh[1]) who possessed only basic military training, and a smaller but still considerable number of professional warriors belonging to the nobility (pipiltin [2] ) and who were organized into warrior societies and ranked according to their achievements. The Aztec state was centered around political expansion and dominance of and exaction of tribute from other city states, and warfare was the basic dynamic force in Aztec politics. Aztec society was also centered around warfare: every Aztec male received basic military training from an early age and the only possibility of upwards social mobility for commoners (macehualtin[3] ) was through military achievement - especially the taking of captives (maltin [4] ). The sacrifice of war captives was an important part of many of the Aztec religious festivals. Warfare was thus the main driving force of both the Aztec economy and religion.
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[edit] Warfare in Aztec society
There were two main objectives in Aztec aggressive warfare. The first objective was political: the subjugation of enemy city states in order to exact tribute and expand Aztec political hegemony. The second objective was religious and socioeconomic: the taking of captives to be sacrificed in religious ceremonies. These dual objectives also influenced the kind of warfare practiced by the Aztecs. Most warfare was primarily political and was driven by the expectations of the Aztec nobility for the Tlatoani [5] to provide economic growth through expansion and the expectation of the commoners to have a chance of moving up in society through successful warfare. The first action of a ruler elect was always to stage a military campaign which served the dual purpose of showing his ability as a warrior and thus make it clear to subject polities that his rule would be as tough on any rebellious conduct as that of his predecessor, and to provide abundant captives for his coronation ceremony. A failed coronation campaign was seen as an extremely bad omen for the rule of a Tlatoani and could lead to rebellions of city states subjected by earlier rulers and to the Aztec nobility distrusting his ability to rule - this was the case for Tizoc who was poisoned by the Aztec nobles after several failed military campaigns.
[edit] Fortifications
The Aztecs didn't normally maintain tight territorial control within their empire but nonetheless there are examples of fortifications built by the Aztecs. Prominent examples are the strongholds at Oztuma (Oztoman [6]) where the Aztecs built a garrison to keep the rebellious Chontales in line, in Quauhquechollan (modern day Huauquechula) near Atlixco where the Aztecs built a garrison in order to always have forces close to their traditional enemies the Tlaxcalteca, Chololteca and Huexotzinca, and in Malinalco near Toluca where Ahuitzotl built garrisons and fortifications to keep watch over the Matlatzinca, Mazahua and Otomies and to always have troops close to the enemy Tarascan state - the borders with which were also guarded and at least partly fortified on both sides.
[edit] Flower War
A second kind of warfare practiced by the Aztecs was referred to as Flower war (xochiyaoyotl[7] ). This kind of warfare was fought by smaller armies after previous arrangement between the parties involved. It was not aimed directly at conquering the enemy city state, but served a number of other purposes. One often cited purpose is the taking of sacrificial captives and this was certainly an important part of most Aztec warfare. Friar Diego Durán and the chronicles based on the Crónica X states that the Xochiyayoyotl was instigated by Tlacaelel during the great Mesoamerican famine of 1450-1454 under the reign of Moctezuma I. These sources state that Tlacaelel arranged with the leaders of Tlaxcala, Cholula, and Huexotzinco, and Tliliuhquitepec to engage in ritual battles that would provide all parties with enough sacrificial victims to appease the gods. Ross Hassig (1988) however poses four main political purposes of xochiyaoyotl: 1.) this kind of warfare gave the Aztecs a chance to demonstrate their military might. Since the Aztec army was larger than their adversaries that were normally smaller city states and since the number of combatants on each side were fixed, the Aztec army were sending a much smaller percentage of their total forces than their opponents, losing a Flower War would then be less damaging for the Aztec army than for its opponents. 2.) This also meant that an objective was attrition - the large Aztec army could afford to engage in small scale warfare much more frequently than their opponents who would then gradually tire until they were ripe for actual conquest. 3.) It also allowed a ruler to maintain hostilities, at low intensity, while occupied by other matters. 4.) Mainly Xochiyaoyotl served as propaganda both towards other city states and to the Aztec people allowing the Aztec rulers to continuously demonstrate their might with a constant influx of war captives to Tenochtitlan.
[edit] Organization
The Aztec army was organized into two layers. The commoners were organized into "wards" (calpulli [8] ) that were under the leadership of tiachcahuan[9] and calpoleque [10]. The nobles were organized into professional warrior societies. Apart from the Tlatoani the war leaders of the Aztecs were the High General, the Tlacochcalcatl [11] and the General the Tlacateccatl [12] . The Tlacochcalcatl and Tlacateccatl also had to name successors prior to any battle so that if they died they could be immediately replaced. Priests also took part in warfare, carrying the effigies of deities into battle alongside the armies. The image below shows the Tlacateccatl and the Tlacochcalcatl and two other officers (probably priests) known as Huitznahuatl and Ticocyahuacatl, all dressed in their tlahuiztli suits:
[edit] Training
Sons of nobles were trained at the Calmecac [13] and received sophisticated training in warfare as well as in general courtly subjects such as astronomy, calendrics, rhetorics, poetry and religion.
The sons of commoners were trained in the Telpochcalli [14] where they received basic military training and sometimes learned a trade.
[edit] Stratification and ranks
The commoners composed the bulk of the army, the lowest were porters (tlameme [15] ) who carried weapons and supplies, next came the youths of the telpochcalli led by their sergeants (the telpochyahque [16]) Next were the commoners yaoquizqueh. And finally there were commoners who had taken captives, the so-called tlamani[17] .
Ranking above these came the nobles of the "warrior societies". These were ranked according to the number of captives they had taken in previous battles; the number of captives determined which of the different suits of honor (called tlahuiztli)[18] they were allowed to wear. These tlahuiztli became gradually more spectacular as the ranks progressed, allowing the most excellent warriors who had taken many captives to stand out on the battlefield.
[edit] Warrior societies
Commoners excelling in warfare could be promoted to the noble class and could enter some of the warrior societies (at least the Eagles and Jaguars). Sons of nobles trained at the Calmecac however were expected to enter into one of the societies as they progressed through the ranks. Warriors could shift from one society and into another when they became sufficiently proficient; exactly how this happened is uncertain. Each society had different styles of dress and equipment as well as styles of body paint and adornments.
[edit] Eagle and Jaguar warriors
The largest warrior society was that of the Eagles (quauhtin[19]) and the Jaguars (ocelomeh[20]) . They dressed as the animal they took their name from, some wearing pelts of large felines and others adorned in eagle feathers. Many of these warriors are depicted as statues and in codices. Aztec poetry also frequently applies the diphrasal metaphor "In cuauhtli, in ocelotl" (the eagles, the jaguars) to refer to nobles in war. The Headquarter of the Eagles and Jaguars was the Quauhcalli "the Eagle House" located in the ceremonial precinct in Tenochtitlan.
[edit] Otomies
The Otomies (Otontin [21])were another warrior society who took their name after the Otomi people who were renowned for their fierce fighting. In the historical sources it is often difficult to discern whether the word otomitl "Otomi" refers to members of the Aztec warrior society, or members of the ethnic group who also often joined the Aztec armies as mercenaries or allies.
[edit] The Shorn Ones
The "Shorn Ones" (Cuachicqueh [22]) was the most prestigious warrior society - their heads were shaved apart from a long braid over the left ear. Their bald heads and faces were painted one half blue and another half red or yellow. They had sworn not to take a step backwards during a battle on pain of death at the hands of their comrades.
[edit] Equipment
[edit] Ranged weapons
Atlatl: The Aztec dart thrower was a weapon used to hurl small darts called "tlacochtli" with greater force and from greater range than they could be thrown by hand. Murals at Teotihuacan show warriors using this effective weapon and it is characteristic of the Mesoamerican cultures of central Mexico.
Tlahuitolli: a bow.
Mitl: arrow
Micomitl: Aztec arrow quiver.
Yaomitl: war arrows with barbed obsidian points.
Tematlatl: a stone sling. made from maguey fiber.
[edit] Mêlée weapons
Macuahuitl: "Hand stick", essentially a wooden sword with sharp obsidian blades embedded into its sides. This was the standard armament of the elite cadres. Also known in Spanish by the Taino word "macana". A blow from such a weapon was reputedly capable of decapitating a horse.[23]
Tepoztopilli: Wooden lance with sharp obsidian blades in the top.
Quauhololli: a simple club with a spherical wooden ball at the end.
Huitzauhqui: a wooden club with inlaid obsidian blades.
[edit] Armor
Chimalli: shields made by different materials such as the wooden shield "cuauhchimalli" or maize cane "otlachimalli". There were also ornamental shields decorated with motifs made in featherwork, these were called māhuizzoh chimalli.
Ichcahuipilli: quilted cotton armor. One or two fingers thick, this material was resistant to obsidian swords and atlatl darts.
Ehuatl: the tunic that some noble warriors wore over their cotton armor or tlahuiztli.
Tlahuiztli: the distinctively decorated suits of prestigious warriors and members of warrior societies.
Pamitl: the banner that excellent and notable warriors and officers wore on their backs. They were often personalized so that they could be seen and recognized from a distance.
[edit] Campaigns and battles
Once the decision of going to war was made the news were proclaimed in the plazas calling for mobilization of the army for several days or weeks in advance. When the troops were ready and any allied cities had been alerted and had given their consent to partake in the campaign the march began. Usually the first to march were the priests carrying the effigies, the next day the nobles marched led by the Tlacochcalcatl and Tlacateccatl. And on the third day the main bulk of the army set out with the Tenochca marching first followed by the warriors from the other cities in the alliance (Tepanecas and Texcocas) and lastly the allied forces from other cities, some of these subject cities would also join in gradually during the march as the army passed by their cities. Thanks to the efficient system of roads maintained throughout central Mexico the army marched an estimated average of 19-32 kilometers pr day.[24]The size of the Aztec army varied considerably from small contingents of some one, to a few thousand warriors to large armies with tens to hundreds of thousands of warriors. In the war against Coixtlahuacan the Aztec army numbered 200,000 warriors and 100,000 porters. Other sources mention Aztec armies of up to 700,000 men.
[edit] Combat
Battles usually started at dawn - smoke signals were used to show that a battle was beginning and to coordinate attacks between different divisions of the army. The signal to attack was given by musical instruments such as drums and the conch shell trumpet (the Tlapitzalli). Usually the battle began with projectile fire - the bulk of the army was composed of commoners often armed with bows or slings. Then the warriors advanced into melee combat and during this phase, before the actual melee, the atlatl was used - this missile weapon was effective over shorter distances than slings and bows but much more lethal. The first warriors to enter into melee were the most distinguished warriors of the Cuachicque and the Otontin societies; then came the Eagles and Jaguars; and lastly the commoners and unpracticed youths. Until entering into melee order rank was maintained and the Aztecs would try to surround or outflank the enemy, but once the melee began the ranks dissolved into a fray of individual hand-to-hand fighting. Youths participating in battle for the first time would usually not be allowed to fight before the Aztec victory was ensured, after which they would try to capture prisoners from the fleeing enemy. It is said that, particularly during flower wars, Aztec warriors would try to capture rather than kill their foes, sometimes striving to cut a hamstring or otherwise incapacitate their opponents. This has been used as an argument to explain the defeat of the Aztecs by the Spanish but it is no longer considered to be probable - since sources clearly state that Aztecs did kill their Spanish opponents whenever they had the chance. Other Aztec tactical maneuvers included feigned retreats and ambushes where small portions of Aztec forces would attack and then fall back and lure the enemy into a trap where many more warriors were hidden in the terrain. If a defending enemy retreated into their city the battle was continued there - but normally the objective was to conquer a city not destroy it. Once the city was conquered the main temple would be set on fire signaling far and wide, to all concerned, the Aztec victory. If enemies still refused to surrender the rest of the city could be burned as well, but this was uncommon.[25]
[edit] See also
[edit] Notes
- ^ [ja:o:ki:skeʔ]"those who have gone to war"
- ^ [pi:piltin]
- ^ [ma:sewaltin]
- ^ [ma:ltin] singular malli
- ^ [tɬaʔtoa:ni]
- ^ [osto:ma:n]
- ^ [ʃo:tʃija:'o:jo:tɬ]
- ^ [kal'po:lli]
- ^ [tiatʃ'kawa:n] - "leaders"
- ^ [kalpo:leʔkeʔ] "calpulli owners"
- ^ [tɬakotʃ'kalkatɬ] "The man from the house of darts"
- ^ [tɬa:ka'tekkatɬ] -"Cutter of men"
- ^ [kal'mekak]- "lineage house"
- ^ [te:lpotʃ'kalli] "house of youth"
- ^ [tɬamemeʔ]
- ^ [te:lpotʃ'jaʔkeʔ] "youth leaders"
- ^ [tɬamaniʔ] "captors"
- ^ [tɬawistɬi]
- ^ [kʷawtin]
- ^ [o:celomeʔ]
- ^ ([oto:ntin]
- ^ [kʷatʃikkeʔ]
- ^ Hassig (1988), p.83.
- ^ Hassig, 1988, p.67-68
- ^ The description of Aztec combat is condensed from Hassig, 1988, chapter 7
[edit] References
- Hassig, Ross (1988). Aztec Warfare: Imperial Expansion and Political Control, Civilization of the American Indian series, no. 188. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 0-8061-2121-1. OCLC 17106411.
- Hassig, Ross (1992). War and Society in Ancient Mesoamerica. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-07734-2. OCLC 25007991.
