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Contents

[edit] Domestic violence

[edit] Definition

[edit] Terminology

Terminology commonly used in legal and scholarly literature include "intimate partner violence" (Bureau of Justice Statistics) and spousal (or spouse) abuse.

Wife abuse, wife beating, and battering are terms sometimes used, though with acknowledgment that many are not actually married to the abuser, but rather co-habiting or other arrangements.[1] In more recent years, 'battering' or 'battered wife' has become less acceptable terminology, since abuse can take other forms than physical abuse. Other forms of abuse may be constantly occurring, while physical abuse happens occasionally. These other forms of abuse have potential to lead to mental illness, self-harm, and even attempts at suicide.[2][3]

Family violence is a term that encompasses not only violence between intimate partners, but also child abuse, elder abuse, and abuse involving other members of the family, with family including people living together but not legally married.

  • Harvey Wallace defines family violence as "any act or omission by persons who are co-habitating that results in serious injury to other members of the family."[4]
  • The American Psychological Association Presidential Task Force on Violence and the Family defined family violence and abuse as "acts of physical abuse, sexual abuse, and psychological maltreatment; chronic situations in which one person controls or intends to control another person's behavior; and misuse of power that may result in injury or harm to the psychological, social, economic, sexual, or physical well-being of family members."[5]

[edit] Definitions

  • "Assaultive behavior involving adults who are married or who have a prior or an ongoing intimate relationship." — Cole and Smith (2005)[6]
  • The U.S. Office on Violence Against Women (OVW) defines domestic violence as a "pattern of abusive behavior in any relationship that is used by one partner to gain or maintain power and control over another intimate partner."[7]
  • Definition given by the UK Home Office, "any violence between current or former partners in an intimate relationship, wherever and whenever the violence occurs. The violence may include physical, sexual, emotional or financial abuse."[8]
  • The Children and Family Court Advisory and Support Service (CAFCASS) in the United Kingdom in its "Domestic Violence Policy" uses domestic violence to refer to a range of violent and abusive behaviours, defining it as "patterns of behaviour characterised by the misuse of power and control by one person over another who are or have been in an intimate relationship. It can occur in mixed gender relationships and same gender relationships and has profound consequences for the lives of children, individuals, families and communities. It may be physical, sexual, emotional and/or psychological. The latter may include intimidation, harassment, damage to property, threats and financial abuse."[9]
  • "Intimate partner violence (often termed domestic violence) takes various forms, including physical violence ranging from slaps, punches, and kicks to assaults with a weapon and homicide; and sexual violence takes forms such as forced sex, or forced participation in degrading sexual acts. These are frequently accompanied by emotionally abusive behaviours such as prohibiting a woman from seeing her family and friends, ongoing belittlement or humiliation, or intimidation; economic restrictions such as preventing a woman from working, or confiscating her earnings; and other controlling behaviours."[10]

[edit] Types

Domestic violence may include physical and/or sexual violence, as well as emotional, psychological, and financial abuse. Abuse may occur continually over time or be episodic or periodic in occurrence. The abuse may be used as a way to obtain obedience to all orders.[11]

[edit] Statistics

See also: User:Aude/VAW statistics

Most under-reported crime, and difficult to define, thus making it difficult to get precise statistics on the incidence of domestic violence.[12][13] Nonetheless, surveys have been conducted to estimate the extent that domestic violence occurs in the United States, as well as numerous other countries, and international surveys conducted by the United Nations, The World Bank and other organizations.

[edit] Extent

In the United States...

  • As many as 4 million incidents each year.[14]
  • Woman is beaten every 18 seconds (according to the FBI)
  • One of the leading causes of injury to women (according to the Surgeon General)
  • 30 percent of women murdered are killed by their male partners.[14]
  • 22.1 percent of women and 7.4 percent of men surveyed in the U.S. reported that they had been physically assaulted by an intimate partner at some point during their life.[15]
  • Each year, 1.3 million women and 835,000 men in the U.S. are physically assaulted by an intimate partner, according to a 1995-1996 survey.[15]
  • 16 percent (1 of 6) couples in the United States experienced physical assault in 1985, according to a survey by Straus and Gelles.[16]

Percent of women surveyed (national surveys) who were ever physically assaulted by an intimate partner:[17]

  • Barbados - 30%
  • Canada - 29%
  • Egypt - 34%
  • New Zealand - 35%
  • Switzerland - 21%
  • United States - 22%

Some surveys in specific places report figures as high as 50-70% of women surveyed who were ever physically assaulted by an intimate partner.[17] Others, including surveys in the Philippines and Paraguay, report figures as low as 10%.[17] Almost always, surveys will undercount actual numbers. Results will also vary, depending on specific wording of survey questions, how the survey is conducted, the definition of abuse or domestic violence used, and other factors.>

Surveys in other countries:

Other international figures:

  • Global estimation[32]

[edit] Domestic violence victims

[edit] Men and women

  • Women [in the United States] are six times as likely as men to experience intimate partner violence.[33]
  • Women are victims of intimate partner violence, overwhelmingly more than men.[34]

[edit] Other factors

  • Affects people across society, irrespective of economic status.[1]
  • Affects people regardless of race, ethnicity, etc.[14]
  • Much greater risk for those who are married, compared to cohabitants. Relationships between cohabitants are easier to end, while married couples have many more pressures to instead work through conflicts.[35]

[edit] Surveys

[edit] Characteristics

Families that experience violence often are more socially isolated, have distanced from extended family, friends, and the community who otherwise could serve as a support system.[40] Power differentials in a relationship also may be a factor, allowing one to more easily impose their will on the other and control others behavior,[40] and allowing the more powerful person to take advantage of another.[41] Jealousy over a partner's activities and independent friendships may also be a source of conflict.[42][43] Drug and alcohol abuse are common in families experiencing violence, but no causal link between substance abuse and family violence has been determined.[44]

In situations of domestic violence, the incidence of violent incidents and severity of abuse often increase over time.[45][46][47]

Disobedience, failure as a wife, or infidelity are frequently given as reasons why the victim is accused of provoking the violence.[10]

[edit] Types and patterns

Distinctions need to be made regarding types of violence, motives of perpetrators, and the social and cultural context. Violence by a man against his wife or intimate partner is often done as a way for men to control "their woman". Other types of intimate partner violence also occur, including violence between gay and lesbian couples,[48] and by women against their male partners.[43]

Distinctions are not based on single incidents, but rather on patterns across numerous incidents and motives of the perpetrator. Types of violence identified by Johnson:[49][50][43]

  • Common couple violence (CCV) is not connected to general control behavior, but arises in a single argument where one or both partners physically lash out at the other. Intimate terrorism is one element in a general pattern of control by one partner over the other. Intimate terrorism is more common than common couple violence, more likely to escalate over time, not as likely to be mutual, and more likely to involve serious injury.[51][50][52][43]
  • Intimate terrorism (IT) may also involve emotional and psychological abuse.[53][54][55]
  • Violent resistance (VR), sometimes thought of as "self-defense", is violence perpetrated usually by women against their abusive partners.[56][57][50][58][59]
  • Mutual violent control (MVC) is rare type of intimate partner violence occurs when both partners act in a violent manner, battling for control.[60][43]

Types of male batterers identified by Holtzworth-Munroe and Stuart (1994) include "family-only", which primarily fall into the CCV type, who are generally less violent and less likely to perpetrate psychological and sexual abuse. IT batterers include two types: "Generally-violent-antisocial" and "dysphoric-borderline". The first type includes men with general psychopathic and violent tendencies. The second type are men who are emotionally dependent on the relationship.[61][59][43] Support for this typology has been found in subsequent evaluations.[62][63]

[edit] Same-sex relationships

In lesbian relationships, psychological abuse often includes threats to "out" the partner to other family members or employers.[42]

[edit] Theories

Potential factors that have been studied include the possibility that alcohol abuse increases likelihood for violence, poverty which may place increased stress in a relationship, and other social/psychological factors.[59][64][65]

[edit] Biosocial trait theories

The evolutionary theory, suggested by Martin Daly and Margo Wilson, suggests that spousal violence by men is driven by evolutionary and reproductive factors, with these men having fear of infidelity and losing their partners.[66] Force and violence may be a means for men to exercise control and possession.[67]

[edit] Psychological

Psychological theories focus on personality traits and mental characteristics of the offender. Personality traits include sudden bursts of anger, poor impulse control, and poor self esteem. Various theories suggest that psychopathology and other personality disorders are factors, and that abuse experienced as a child leads some people to be more violent as adults. Studies have found high incidence of psychopathy among abusers.[68][69][70] Dutton has suggested a psychological profile of men who abuse their wives, arguing that they have borderline personalities (between psychotics and neurotics), which are developed early in life.[71][72] Gelles suggests that psychological theories are limited, and points out that other researchers have found that only 10% (or less) fit this psychological profile. He argues that social factors are important, while personality traits, mental illness, or psychopathy are lesser factors.[73][74][75]

[edit] Social theories

Looks at external factors in the offender's environment, such as family structure, stress, social learning, and includes rational choice theories.

[edit] Resource theory

Resource theory was suggested by William Goode (1971).[76] Women who are most dependent on the spouse for economic well being. Having children to take care of, should she leave the marriage, increases the financial burden and makes it all the more difficult for women to leave. Dependency means that women have fewer options and few resources to help them cope with or change their spouse's behavior.[77]

Couples that share power equally experience lower incidence of conflict, and when conflict does arise, are less likely to resort to violence. If one spouse desires control and power in the relationship, the spouse may resort to abuse.[78] This may include coercion and threats, intimidation, emotional abuse, economic abuse, isolation, making light of the situation and blaming the spouse, using children (threatening to take them away), and behaving as "master of the castle".[79][80]

[edit] Social stress

Stress may be increased when a person is living in a family situation, with increased pressures. Social stresses, due to inadequate finances or other such problems in a family may further increase tensions.[81] Violence is not always caused by stress, but may be one way that some (but not all) people respond to stress.[82][83] Families and couples in poverty may be more likely to experience domestic violence, due to increased stress and conflicts about finances and other aspects.[84] Some speculate that poverty may hinder a man's ability to live up to his idea of "successful manhood", thus he fears losing honor and respect. Theory suggests that when he is unable to economically support his wife, and maintain control, he may turn to misogyny, substance abuse, and crime as ways to express masculinity.[84]

[edit] Social learning theory

Social learning theory suggests that people learn from observing and modeling after others' behavior. With positive reinforcement, the behavior continues. If one observes violent behavior, one is more likely to imitate it. If there are no negative consequences (e.g. victim accepts the violence, with submission), then the behavior will likely continue. Sometimes, violence is also transmitted from generation to generation.[85][86][87][88][89][90]

[edit] Exchange theory

Exchange theory is premised on the idea that people desire positive outcomes and try to avoid negative consequence or outcomes. Sometimes force may be used by a partner to get what he/she wants. If they do it without any negative consequences, then it will likely continue.[91]

[edit] Subculture of violence

Looks at how social/cultural factors may create subculture(s) of violence, the media and its pervasive depiction of violence, general systems theory, and social conflict theory.

[edit] Alcohol

Numerous studies support an association between alcohol and violence.[92][93][94][95][96][84]

Theories include:

  • Disinhibition theory
  • Social learning and deviance disavowal theory
  • Integrated theoretical models

Research findings do not necessarily support the disinhibition theory. Rather, people's reaction to alcohol varies by culture; In some cultures, alcohol has a tendency to make people more passive.[97][98]

[edit] Cycle of violence

The cycle of violence theory, also sometimes referred to as "intergenerational transmission of violence", suggests that violent behavior may be learned by children from parents and family members, who may then bring violent behavior into relationships as an adult and towards their family. This cycle repeats, but with some escaping from the cycle with good social support and other factors.[99] The cycle of violence theory has been around since the 1960s.[100][101] There have been numerous subsequent studies into this theory.[102][103][104][105][106][107][108]

Some anecdotal cases and small-scale studies in the 1970s and 1980s described abuse in the background of adolescents who killed or attempted to kill their parents,[109][110][111][112][113] or committed other acts of murdered.[114][115] But, the studies were more descriptive and not all were rigorous and scientifically valid studies.[116]

A longitudinal study begun in 1989, led by Cathy Widom, has looked at a group of 1,575 child abuse victims documented in court records from 1967-1971, following up on them as they move into adulthood. The study found that being abused or neglected as a child increases the likelihood of juvenile arrest (by 59%) and arrest as an adult (28%). The likelihood of a violent crime arrest increased by 30% for those abused or neglected as a child.[117]

Other longitudinal studies that have looked at the cycle of violence include the Rochester Youth Development Study, which started in 1988 and involved 1,000 7th and 8th grade students. The study found that those who experienced maltreatment as a child had 24 percent increased likelihood of being involved in youth violence. Maltreatment is also a significant risk factor for delinquency and other self-reported violence. Children living in households with their parents or other adults involved in domestic violence are also at significantly higher risk of becoming involved in youth violence themselves.[118]

[edit] Deterrence

[edit] Legal history

The Twelve Tables, which formed the basis of Roman law, permitted men to use violence against his wife. In Korea, the Goryeo dynasty outlawed domestic violence in 936 A.D., but the law was not always enforced.

American law, regarding how husbands may treat their wives, was based on Anglo-American common law, which once permitted husbands to inflict corporal punishment or chastise so long as it did not result in permanent injury. Blackstone suggested there were limits on what rights a husband had over his wife. In a 1871 case in Alabama (Fulgham v. State, 46 Ala. 146-147), marital chastisement was regarded as an ancient tradition of increasingly uncertain legitimacy.[119] With this case, Alabama became the first state to disallow a husband to beat his wife.[120] In the same year, the Massachusetts Supreme Court rejected a husband's "right" to chastise his wife in the case, Commonwealth v. McAfee.[119]

[edit] Law enforcement response

See also: Minneapolis Domestic Violence Experiment

[edit] Danger to responding officers?

In the 1970s, it was widely believed that domestic disturbance calls were the most dangerous type for responding officers, who arrive to a highly emotionally charged situation. This belief was based on FBI statistics which turned out to be flawed, in that they grouped all types of disturbances together with domestic disturbances, such as brawls at a bar. Subsequent statistics and analysis have shown this belief to be false.[121][122]

[edit] Victim preferences

Victim preferences regarding whether or not the abuser should be arrested may influence the responding police officers.[123]

[edit] Evidence gathering

An initiative in the late 1990s in Fulham (South London), found that enhanced evidence gathering, such as officers photographing at the scene, has helped in making prosecutions more successful, encouraging abusers to plead guilty, and as a deterrent.[124]

[edit] Interagency response

  • Domestic Abuse Intervention Project in Duluth, Minnesota - to coordinate response from the government and community.[125]

[edit] Other

  • Follow-up calls by police, 24 hours after the original call - Domestic Violence Matters (DVM), London[125]
  • Quick response pendant alarms issued to vulnerable women - The Merseyside Domestic Violence Prevention Project[125]
  • Three-tiered incremental interventions - Killingbeck, West Yorkshire[125]

[edit] Laws

[edit] State laws

By 2005, 23 states and the District of Columbia had enacted mandatory arrest for domestic assault, without warrant, given that the officer has probable cause and regardless of whether or not the officer witnessed the crime.[126]

[edit] Firearms

  • Restrictions on those with misdemeanor domestic violence convictions, or under a restraining order are prohibited from purchasing firearms, under Federal law in the United States. Some states have additional restrictions, which vary from state to state.

[edit] Other means of deterrence

  • Shame and public humiliation often result from the abuser's behavior being made public, and the abuser being charged with a crime. Social rejection/disapproval by friends, peers, and colleagues that may result are important deterrent factors, with many fearing these consequences more than the actual legal punishment.[127][128][129][130][131][132][133][134]

[edit] Intervention

A variety of intervention programs now exist, including shelters, hotlines, crisis intervention program, and counseling services. Chiswick Women's Aid, established in 1971 in the UK by Erin Pizzey, and a shelter established in St. Paul, Minnesota by Women's Advocates in 1972, were among the earliest programs established to provide support to battered women.[135][136]

Interventions, such as Womens Aide, are reactionary and come after a woman has requested it. Most initiatives to deal with domestic violence have involved the legal system, policy, and housing, while not fully recognizing the role that health service can play.[137][138]

  • Housing response - UK[139]

[edit] Medical issues

[edit] Health effects

Domestic violence may lead to mental illness, alcoholism, drug abuse, other means of self-harm, and even attempts at suicide.[140][141] Physical injuries may include burns, bruises, broken bones, cuts, knife injuries and from other objects, as well as permanent injury to joints, hearing, vision, and scars. Other health effects may include somatic complaints, migraines, pain in the stomach and joints, and possibly miscarriage if a woman is pregnant.[142] Women may experience other long-term health problems after experiencing domestic violence.[143]

Depression, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), anxiety disorder, obsessive-compulsive disorder, and other mental conditions are prevalent among spousal abuse victims.[144][145][146] Psychological abuse (e.g. threats and intimidation), which often accompanies physical violence, can lead to mental health problems.[147]

[edit] Medical response

Many cases of spousal abuse are handled solely by medical professionals and do not involved the police. Sometimes cases of spousal abuse are brought into the emergency room,[148] while many other cases are handled by family physician or other primary care provider.[149]

Medical professionals, who have contact with abuse victims through medical visits, have a role to play in helping domestic violence victims. Doctors and other medical professionals are in position to empower victims, telling them it's "not their fault", "they don't have to put up with it", give advice, and refer them to appropriate services. The health care professional in the United Kingdom, the United States, and elsewhere has not always met this role, been uneven in quality of care, and in many cases has been unhelpful due to misunderstandings they have about domestic violence.[150] Myths that have prevailed in the past and influenced how a doctor approaches a case, where domestic violence may be involved, include the belief that domestic violence is rare, that women are responsible for the violence, and it is inevitable.[151][152] Washaw (1993) suggests that many doctors prefer not to get involved in people's "private" lives. Clifton, Jacobs, and Tulloch (1996) found that training for general practitioners in the United States about domestic violence was very limited or they had no training. Abbott and Williamson found that knowledge and understanding of domestic violence was very limited among health care professionals in a Midlands, United Kingdom county, and that they don't see themselves as being able to play a major role in helping women in regards to domestic violence.[153] Furthermore, in the biomedical model of health care, injuries are often just treated and diagnosed, without regard for the causes.[154]

As well, there is substantial reluctance for victims to come forward and broach the issue with their physicians.[155] On average, women experience 35 incidents of domestic violence before seeking treatment.[156]

[edit] Costs

  • Costs for treatment of physical and mental health problems can have enormous financial impact on abuse victims who do not have health insurance, with major financial costs for the health care system and society.[157]

[edit] Notes

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[edit] References

  • Gelles, Richard J. (1997). Intimate Partner Violence in Families. Sage. 
  • Shipway, Lyn (2004). Domestic Violence: A Handbook for Health Professionals. Routledge, p. 1-2. 
  • Wallace, Harvey (2004). Family Violence: Legal, Medical, and Social Perspectives. Allyn & Bacon. ISBN 0205418228. 

[edit] Further reading

Family violence
  • Dobash, R.E. and R.P. Dobash (1992). Women, Violence and Social Change. Routledge. 
  • Fagan, Jeffrey, Karen V. Hansen and Michael Jang (1983). "Profiles of Chronically Violent Delinquents: Empirical Test of an Integrated Theory", in Kleugel, James: Evaluating Juvenile Justice. Sage. 
  • Garbarino, James, and G. Gilliam (1980). Understanding Abusive Families. Lexington Books. 
  • Kaufman, Joan and Edward Zigler (1987). Do Abused Children Become Abusive Parents? 57, pp. 186-192.  - abused children becoming abusive parents?
  • Widom, Cathy S. (1989). "The Intergenerational Transmission of Violence", in Weiner, N., M.E. Wolfgang: Pathways to Criminal Violence. Sage.  - literature review on "violence breeds violence" hypothesis

[edit] Gender differences

  • Macmillan, R. and R. Gartner (1999). "When She Brings Home the Bacon: Labour-Force Participation and the Risk of Spousal Violence Against Women". Journal of Marriage and the Family 61: pp. 947-958. 

[edit] Dating violence

  • Bookwala, J., I. H. Frieze, et al (1992). "Predictors of Dating Violence: A Multivariate Analysis". Violence and Victims 7: pp. 297-311. 
  • Foo, L. and G. Margolin (1995). "A Multivariate Investigation of Dating Aggression". Journal of Family Violence 10: pp. 351-377. 
  • Lloyd, S. A. and B. C. Emery (2000). The Dark Side of Courtship: Physical and Sexual Aggression. Sage. 
  • Riggs, D. S. and K. D. O'Leary (1996). "Aggression Between Heterosexual Dating Partners: An Examination of a Causal Model of Courtship Aggression". Journal of Interpersonal Violence 11: pp. 519-540. 
  • Riggs, D. S., K. D. O'Leary and F. C. Breslin (1990). "Multiple Correlates of Physical Aggression in Dating Couples". Journal of Interpersonal Violence 5: pp. 61-73. 
  • Stets, J. E. and M. A. Pirog-Good (1990). "Interpersonal Control and Courtship Aggression". Journal of Social and Personal Relationships 7: pp. 371-394. 
  • Tontodonato, P., B. K. Crew (1992). "Dating Violence: Social Learning Theory and Gender: A Multivariate Analysis". Violence and Victims 7: pp. 3-14. 
  • Wyatt, G.E. (1994). "Sociocultural and Epidemiological Issues in the Assessment of Domestic Violence". Journal of Social Distress and the Homeless 3: pp. 7-21. 

[edit] Marriage

  • Becker, Gary S. (1973). "A Theory of Marriage: Part I". The Journal of Political Economy 81(4): pp. 813-846. 
  • Becker, Gary S. (1974). "A Theory of Marriage: Part II - Marriage, Family Human Capital, and Fertility". The Journal of Political Economy 82(2): pp. S11-S26. 
  • Becker, Gary S. (1991). A Treatise on the Family. Harvard University Press. ISBN 0674906993. 
  • Farmer, Amy and Jill Tiefenthaler (May 1996). "Domestic Violence: The Value of Services as Signals". The American Economic Review 86(2): pp. 274-279. 
  • Farmer, Amy and Jill Tiefenthaler (1997). "An economic analysis of domestic violence". Review of Social Economy 55: pp. 337-358. 
Victimization
  • Johnson, H. (1996). Dangerous Domains: Violence Against Women in Canada. International Thomas Publishing. 
  • National Victim Center and the Crime Victims Research and Treatment Center (1992). Rape in America: A Report to the Nation. National Victim Center and the Crime Victims Research and Treatment Center. 
  • Tjaden, Patricia, Nancy Thoennes (1998). "Stalking in America: Findings From the National Violence Against Women Survey (Research in Brief)". . National Institute of Justice. NCJ 169592
  • Tjaden, Patricia, Nancy Thoennes. "Prevalence, Incidence, and Consequences of Violence Against Women: Findings from the National Violence Against Women Survey (Research in Brief)". . National Institute of Justice. NCJ 172837
  • Tjaden, Patricia, Nancy Thoennes. "Extent, Nature, and Consequences of Intimate Partner Violence: Findings from the National Violence Against Women Survey (Research in Brief)". . National Institute of Justice. NCJ 182867
  • Tjaden, Patricia, Nancy Thoennes (2001). "Co-Worker Violence and Gender: Findings From the National Violence Against Women Survey". American Journal of Preventive Medicine 20(1). 
  • Tjaden, Patricia, Nancy Thoennes (2001). "Effects of Interviewer Gender on Men's Responses to a Telephone Survey on Violent Victimization". Journal of Quantitative Criminology. 
  • Tjaden, Patricia, Nancy Thoennes, Christine Allison (2000). "Comparing Stalking Victimization from Legal and Victim Perspectives". Violence and Victims 15(1): pp. 1-16. 
  • Tjaden, Patricia, Nancy Thoennes (May/June 1999). "Prevalence and Incidence of Violence Against Women: Findings from the National Violence Against Women Survey". The Criminologist 24(3). 
  • Tjaden, Patricia, Nancy Thoennes, Christine Allison (2000). "Prevelence and Consquences of Male-to-Female and Female-to-Male Partner Violence as Measured by the National Violence Against Women Survey". Violence Against Women 16(2): pp. 142-161. 
  • Tjaden, Patricia, Nancy Thoennes, Christine Allison (1999). "Comparing Violence Over the Lifespan in Samples of Same-Sex and Opposite Sex Cohabitants". Violence and Victims 14(4): pp. 413-425. 
Minneapolis Domestic Violence Experiment
  • Berk, Richard A., Alec Campbell, Ruth Klap, Bruce Western (October 1992). "The Deterrent Effect of Arrest in Incidents of Domestic Violence: A Bayesian Analysis of Four Field Experiments". American Sociological Review 57(5): pp. 698-708. 
  • Berk, Richard A., Lawrence W. Sherman (March 1988). "Police Responses to Family Violence Incidents: An Analysis of an Experimental Design With Incomplete Randomization". Journal of the American Statistical Association 83(401): pp. 70-76. 
  • Berk, Richard A., Gordon K. Smith and Lawrence W. Sherman (1989). "When Random Assignment Fails: Some Lessons from the Minneapolis Spouse Abuse Experiment". Journal of Quantitative Criminology 4: pp. 209-223. 
  • Boffey, Philip M. "Domestic Violence: Study Favors Arrest", The New York Times, April 5, 1983. 
  • Davis, Robert, Barbara Smith and Laura Nickles (1998). "The Deterrent Effect of Prosecuting Domestic Violence Misdemeanors". Crime and Delinquency 44: pp. 434-442. 
  • Dunford, Franklyn, David Huizings, and Delbert Elliott (1990). "The Role of Arrest in Domestic Assault: The Omaha Experiement". Criminology 28: pp. 183-206. 
  • Dutton, Donald G. (1995). The Domestic Assault of Women: Psychological and Criminal Justice Perspectives. University of British Columbia Press. ISBN 0774804629. 
  • Farmer, Amy and Jill Tiefenthaler (April 2003). "Explaining the Recent Decline in Domestic Violence". Contemporary Economic Policy 21(2): pp. 158-172. 
  • Farrell, Graham (1995). "Preventing repeat victimization", in Tonry, Michael and David P. Farrington: Building a Safer Society: Strategic Approaches to Crime Prevention. Crime and Justice: A Review of Research. University of Chicago Press, pp. 469-534. 
  • Garner, Joel H., Jeffrey Fagan, Jeffrey, Christopher Maxwell (March 1995). "Published finding from the Spouse Assault Replication Program: A critical review". Journal of Quantitative Criminology 11(1): pp. 3-28. 
  • Garner, Joel H. and Christopher D. Maxwell (2000). "What are the lessons of the police arrest studies?". Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment and Trauma 4(1): pp. 83-114. 
  • Goodman, Ellen. "Using 'Muscle' Against Wife Beaters", The Washington Post, April 19, 1983. 
  • Heckert, D. Alex and Edward Gondolf (2000). "The Effect of Perceptions of Sanctions on Batterer Program Outcomes". Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency 37: pp. 369-391. 
  • Hirschel J. David, Ira Hutchison, and Charles Dean (1992). "The Failure of Arrest to Deter Spouse Abuse". Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency 29: pp. 7-33. 
  • Ho, N.T. (2000). "Domestic Violence in a Southern City: The Effects of a Mandatory Arrest Policy on Male-Versus-Female Aggravated Assault Incidents". American Journal of Criminal Justice 25: pp. 107-118. 
  • Jones, Dana and Joanne Belknap. "Police Responses to Battering in a Progressive Pro-Arrest Jurisdiction". Justice Quarterly 16: pp. 249-273. 
  • Kane, Robert. "Patterns of Arrest in Domestic Violence Encounters: Identifying a Police Decision-Making Model". Journal of Criminal Justice 27: pp. 65-79. 
  • Lempert, R.. "Humility is a virtue; On the publicization of policy-relevant research". Law and Society Review 23: pp. 145-161. 
  • Maxwell, Christopher D., Garner, Joel H., Fagan, Jefferey A. (November 2002). "The preventive effects of arrest on intimate partner violence: Research, policy and theory". Criminology and Public Policy 2(1): pp. 51-79. 
  • Miller, Susan and Leeann Iovanni (1994). "Determinants of Perceived Risk of Formal Sanction for Courtship Violence". Justice Quarterly 11: pp. 282-312. 
  • Mills, Linda G. (September 1998). "Mandatory arrest and prosecution policies for domestic violence: A critical literature review and the case for more research to test victim empowerment approaches". Criminal Justice and Behavior 25(3): pp. 306-318. 
  • Sherman, Lawrence W. and Richard A. Berk (1984). "The Specific Deterrent Effects of Arrest for Domestic Assault". American Sociological Review 49: 261-272. 
  • Sherman, Lawrence W. and Ellen C. Cohn (1989). "The Impact of Research on Legal Policy: The Minneapolis Domestic Violence Experiment". Law and Society Review 23: pp. 117-27. 
  • Sherman, Lawrence W., Janell Schmidt, et al (1991). "From Initial Deterrence to Long-Term Escalation: Short-Custody Arrest for Domestic Violence". Criminology 29: pp. 821-850. 
  • Sherman, Lawrence W., Janell D. Schmidt and Dennis P. Rogan (1992). Policing Domestic Violence: Experiments and Dilemmas. Free Press. ISBN 0029287316. 
  • Steinman, Michael (1990). "Lowering Recidivism among Men Who Batter Women". Journal of Police Science and Administration 17: pp. 124-131. 
  • Tauchen, G., H. Tauchen, A.D. Witte (1986). "The dynamics of domestic violence: A reanalysis of the Minneapolis experiment. Working paper". . Department of Economics, Wellesley College
  • Thistlethwaite, Amy, John Wooldredge, and David Gibbs (1998). "Severity of Dispositions and Domestic Violence Recidivism". Crime and Delinquency 44: pp. 388-398. 

Criticism of police response

  • Bowker, L. H. (1982). "Police services to battered women". Criminal Justice and Behavior 9(4): pp. 476-494. 
  • Dobash, R. E. and R. Dobash (1979). Violence against wives. Free Press. 
  • Eisenberg, S. and P. Micklow (1977). "The assaultive wife: "Catch 22" revisited". Women's Rights Law Reporter 3: pp. 138-161. 
  • Field, M. H. and H. F. Field (1973). "Marital violence and the criminal process: Neither justice nor peace". Social Services Review 47: pp. 221-240. 
  • Fields, M. D. (1978). "Wife beating: Government intervention policies and practices", in U.S. Commission on Civil Rights: Battered women: Issues of public policy. U.S. Commission on Civil Rights, pp. 20-27. 
  • Gelles, R. (1976). "Abused wives: Why do they stay?". Journal of Marriage and the Family 38: pp. 659-668. 
  • Lerman, L. G. (1986). "Prosecution of wife beaters: Institutional obstacles and innovations", in M. Lystad: Violence in the home: Interdisciplinary perspectives. Brunner/Mazel, pp. 250-295. 
  • Roy, M. (1977). "Some thoughts regarding the criminal justice system and wifebeating", in M. Roy: Battered women: A psychosociological study of domestic violence. Van Nostrand Reinhold, pp. 138-139. 

[edit] External links