Anishinaabe

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Crest of the Anishinaabe people.

Anishinaabe or more properly Anishinaabeg or Anishinabek (which is the plural form of the word) is a self-description often used by the Odawa, Ojibwe, and Algonkin peoples, who all speak closely related Anishinaabemowin/Anishinaabe languages.

Not all Anishinaabemowin speakers, however, call themselves Anishinaabeg. The Ojibwa people who moved to what are now the prairie provinces of Canada are known externally as Saulteaux, and refer to themselves as Nakawē(-k) and their form of the Anishinaabe language as Nakawēmowin.

Anishinaabe and Anishinini distribution around 1800
Anishinaabe and Anishinini distribution around 1800

The definition of "Anishnaabeg" is First- or Original-People. Another possible definition refers to ideas about the good humans, or good people that are on the right road or path given to them by the Creator.

There are many variant spellings of the Anishinaabe name, depending on the transcription scheme and also on whether the name is singular or plural. Therefore, different spelling systems may indicate vowel length or spell certain consonants differently (Anishinabe, Anicinape); meanwhile, variants ending in -eg/ek (Anishinaabeg, Anishinabek) come from an Algonquian plural, while those ending in an -e come from an Algonquian singular.

In the eastern Ojibwe and in the Odawa, due to the syncope the word experiences, the name "Anishinaabe" is realised as Nishnaabe. The cognate word Neshnabé comes from Potawatomi, a people long allied with Odawas and Ojibwes in the Council of Three Fires. Identified as Anishinaabe but not part of the Council of Three Fires are the Nipissing, Mississaugas and Algonkin. The Algonkin may use the word Omàmiwinini to distinguish themselves from other Anishinaabe.

Closely related to the Ojibwe and speaking a language mutually intelligible with Anishinaabemowin (Anishinaabe language) are the Oji-Cree (also known as "Severn Ojibwe"). However, their most common self-description is Anishinini (plural: Anishininiwag) and their language Anishininiimowin.

Contents

[edit] History

According to their tradition, and from recordings in Wiigwaasabak (birch bark scrolls), they came from the eastern areas of North America, or Turtle Island, and from along the east coast. According to the oral history, seven great miigis (radiant/iridescent) beings in human form appeared to the peoples in the Waabanakiing (Land of the Dawn, i.e. Eastern Land) to teach the peoples of the mide way of life. However, the one of the seven great miigis beings was too spiritually powerful and killed the peoples in the Waabanakiing whenever the people were in its presence. The six great miigis beings remained to teach while the one returned into the depths of the ocean.

Each of the six great miigis beings then established doodem (clans) for the peoples in the east. Of these doodem, the five original Anishinaabe doodem were the Awaazisii (Bullhead), Baswenaazhi (Echo-maker, i.e., Crane), Aan'aawenh (Pintail Duck), Nooke (Tender, i.e., Bear) and Moozoonii (Little Moose); the sixth, later joining the Anishinaabe doodem, was the Waabizheshi (Marten). After the establishment of the doodem, these six miigis beings returned into the depths of the ocean as well. If the seventh miigis being stayed, the oral history surmises it would have established the Animikii Thunderbird doodem.

At a later time, the one miigis beings that left the peoples prematurely appeared in a vision to relate a prophecy. The prophecy stated that if the Anishinaabeg did not move further west, they would not be able to keep their traditional ways alive because of the many new settlements and European immigrants that would arrive soon. Their migration path would be symbolized by a series of smaller Turtle Islands, which was confirmed with miigis shells (i.e., cowry shells). After receiving assurance from the their "Allied Brothers" (i.e., Mi'kmaq) and "Father" (i.e., Abnaki) of their safety in having the Anishinaabeg move inland, they advanced along the St. Lawrence River to the Ottawa River to Lake Nipissing, and then to the Great Lakes.

First of these smaller Turtle Islands was Mooniyaa, which Mooniyaang (Montreal, Quebec) now stands. Here the Anishinaabeg divided into two groups: ones that travelled up the Ottawa River and the core group that proceeded to the "second stopping place" about Niagara Falls. By the time the Anishinaabeg established their "third stopping place" near the present city of Detroit, the Anishinaabeg have divided into six distinct nations: Algonquin, Nipissing, Mississaugas, Ojibwe, Odawa and Potawatomi. While the Odawa established their long-held cultural centre on Manitoulin Island, the Ojibwe established their long-held cultural centre in the Sault Ste. Marie region of Ontario, Canada. With expansion of trade under partnerships with the French and later the British, fostered by availability of Small arms, members of the Council of Three Fires expanded southward to the Ohio River, southwestward along the Illinois River, and westward along Lake Superior, Lake of the Woods and the northern Great Plains. In their western expansion, the Ojibwa again divided, forming the seventh major division of the Anishinaabeg: the Saulteaux.

As the Anishinaabeg moved inland, through both alliances and conquest, various other closely-related Algonquian peoples were incorporated into the Anishinaabe Nation. These included, but not limited to, the Noquet (originally part of the Menomini Tribe) and Mandwe (originally part of the Fox). Other incorporated groups can generally be identified by the individual's Doodem (Clan). Migizi-doodem (Bald Eagle Clan) generally identifies those whose ancestors were Americans and Ma'iingan-doodem (Wolf Clan) as Santee Sioux. Other Anishinaabe doodem migrated out of the core Anishinaabeg groupings, such as the Nibiinaabe-doodem (Merman Clan) that is now found as the "Water-spirit Clan" of the Winnebagos.

Anishinaabeg peoples live as tribal governments or bands (First Nations) in both the northern United States and southern Canada, chiefly around the Great Lakes and Lake Winnipeg. Through treaties and Indian removals of the past, some Anishinaabeg are also located in Kansas and Oklahoma. With the westward migration, far-removed Anishinaabe communities are also found in North and South Dakota and Montana in the United States, and Saskatchewan, Alberta and British Columbia in Canada.

[edit] Historical relations between the Anishinaabeg and other indigenous groups

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[edit] Historical relations between the Anishinaabeg and Settlers

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Historically, the great majority of Anishinaabe people dealt with the European settlers peacefully. However, we must exclude the Anishinaabeg from the Three Fires Confederation of their Illinois, Indiana, Michigan, Ohio, southern Ontario, Pennsylvania and Quebec lands; for they were from the more easterly lands of the Anishinaabeg, which simply means they were the first of the Anishinaabeg to carry on contact with the invading European settlers. Countless numbers of eastern Anishinaabe warriors and civilians, laid down their lives fighting these settlers who dared to squat on their beloved land. Presently, there are no correct estimate for exactly how many Anishinaabeg became a casualties during their war against these settlers, yet it must have been significant. Overall, most contact between the Anishinaabeg and the European settlers were through peaceful means. In addition, traders were known to entice the Anishinaabeg straight into serious debt, either taking the individual into claims court or having restitution specifically written into treaties.

[edit] In French North America

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The earliest Europeans to encounter native peoples in the Great Lakes area were the French voyageurs. They were mainly traders, rather than settlers. Many of the French-language place names in Minnesota and Wisconsin were given by these early explorers.

[edit] In British North America

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In regards to the Anishinabeg relationship with the British, it was no more different than their relationship with their French brethren. However, the Anishinabeg of the Three Fires Confederation likely looked upon their British brethren with greater suspicion and distrust, than they had for the French. When it comes down to it, the leaders of the Three Fires Confederation only went so far in their relationship with the English, as to acquire those necessary modern day weapons of war, so they could defend their land against their white Americans, in the first phase of their relationship with their English brethren. During the American Revolutionary War, through the War of 1812, the Anishinabeg of the east of their vast country, sent their warriors out to attempt to halt the advance of the Americans, while forming an uneasy military alliance with England. Once the Anishinabeg of the east of their vast country had been defeated by the United States, the door was then open for both England and the United States, to force the remaining Anishinabeg to cede land to them. England would eventually demand of the Anishinabeg of Canada to cede almost all of the land.

[edit] In the United States

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The relationship between the Anishinaabe and the American government have not always been a pleasant one. Beginning with the Northwest Indian War caused in part by American settlers colonizing areas between the original Thirteen Colonies and Mississippi River and ending with the signing of the Treaty of Greenville of 1795, the government of the United States had attempted to relocate tribes from the United States to the west of the Mississippi River. Many Anishinaabe refugees from the conflict, particularly Odawa and Potawatomi migrated north to British-held areas.

Those who remained were subjected to the Indian Removal policy of the United States, which the Anishinaabeg affected the Potawatomi the most. The Odawa were removed from the settlers' paths, so only a handful of communities experienced removal. For the Ojibwa, removal attempts culminated in the Sandy Lake Tragedy and resulted in several hundred deaths, while a few families were removed to Kansas as part of the Potawatomi removal. For the Potawatomi, survival without removal meant escaping into Ojibwa-held areas and hiding from the officials of the United States.

After the Sandy Lake Tragedy, the goal of the government changed to instead moved the tribes onto reservations, often consolidating whole groups of communities. However, after the Dakota War of 1862, many Anishinaabe communities in Minnesota were relocated and further consolidated.


[edit] In Canada

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Population estimates indicates that the American Anishinabeg population are more numerous than Canada's Anishinabeg population, but accounting for mixed blood and the fact that many of Canada's Anishinabeg are not counted during census time as a result of laws this might be the other way around. In the United States, the Anishinabeg population is approaching near 200,000. Apparently, the accepted Canadian Anishinabeg population is under 100,000.[citation needed]

Canadian Anishinabeg have withstood the efforts of their white brethren to force them to only speak English, which the Anishinabeg in the United States were not capable of doing. 50,000 or more Canadian Anishinabeg speak in the Anishinabeg dialects they were born to speak in. From Quebec, to the eastern lands of British Columbia, there are Anishinabeg Reserves, which, are for the most part, small in size but have kept the Canadian Anishinabeg well organized, and their language alive.

The Canadian Anishinabeg are descended from the northern Lake Superior Anishinabeg, whose original homeland was probably in the vicinity of the eastern upper peninsula of Michigan, where they would eventually separate, with one group going down into Michigan, Illinois, Indiana, Ohio, southern Ontario and Pennsylvania, while another group migrated straight westward, while the ancestors of the Canadian Anishinabeg then commenced to the north, and then to the west, where they would eventually migrate to eastern British Columbia in the 19th century. Future scholars of the Anishinabeg will eventually learn if all Anishinabeg are descended from those Anishinabeg of the eastern upper peninsula of Michigan, or if they are descended from the Algonkin Anishinabeg of Quebec. Today, we truly can't determine the true origins of the Anishinabeg people, but history does point to the upper peninsula of Michigan as their birth lands, but the Algonkins need further intensive study to determine if all Anishinabeg people are directly descended from them.

[edit] Relations today between the Anishinaabeg and their neighbours

Anishinaabe Reserves/Reservations in North America, with diffusion rings if an Anishinaabe language is spoken. Cities with Anishinaabe population also shown.
Anishinaabe Reserves/Reservations in North America, with diffusion rings if an Anishinaabe language is spoken. Cities with Anishinaabe population also shown.

[edit] Other indigenous groups

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There are many Anishinabek Reserves and Reservations, therefore, it has led to the Anishinabek sharing some of their lands with other tribes such as the Cree,the Dakota, Delaware, and the Kickapoo, among others. For example can be said for the Anishnabek who "merged" with the Kickapoo tribe may now identify as being Kickapoo in Kansas and Oklahoma. The Prairie Potawatomi were the Ojibwe, Odawa and Potawatomi of Illinois and Wisconsin who were relocated to Kansas during the 19th century.

[edit] Canada

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[edit] United States

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The relationships between the various Anishinaabe communities in the United States with the United States government have been steadily improving since the passage of the Indian Reorganization Act; however, several Anishinaabe communities still experience tensions with the State governments, County governments and with non-Native American individuals and their groups. Major issues facing the various Anishinaabe communities are:

  • cultural and language preservation or revitalization
  • full and independent Federal recognition: some Anishinaabe communities are recognized by County or State governments, or are recognized by the Federal government only as part of another tribe
  • treaty rights: traditional means of support (hunting, fishing and gathering), establishment of reservations or upholding of the reservation boundaries per treaties and their amendments
  • personal health: diabetes and asthma affect many Anishinaabe communities at a higher than the general population
  • social disparity: poor education, high unemployment, substance abuse/addiction and domestic violence often affect many Anishinaabeg at a higher rates than the general population

[edit] Anishinaabe in popular culture

A fictional Anishinaabe clan in Ontario, the Mtigwaki, are featured in the comic strip For Better or For Worse from 2005-2006.

[edit] See also

[edit] External links

[edit] References

  • Aaron Payment / Chairman Sault Tribe Chippewa Indians
  • Bento-Banai, Edward (2004). Creation- From the Ojibwa. The Mishomis Book.
  • Warren, William W. History of the Ojibway People. Borealis Books (St. Paul, MN: 1984).
  • White, Richard (July 31, 2000). Chippewas of the Sault. The Sault Tribe News.
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