Animal worship

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

 This article is largely based on an article in the out-of-copyright 11th edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica, which was produced in 1911. It should be brought up to date to reflect subsequent history or scholarship (including the references, if any). When you have completed the review, replace this notice with a simple note on this article's talk page. Thanks!

Animal worship is a term rarely used by modern scholars because it is subject to so many interpretations. In its widest sense, for example, Dr. Johannes Weissenborn defined the term 'worship' to mean “the sum of all human utterances and actions which are to be understood as reactions on wonderful and – so far as man’s faculties go – inexplicable phenomena in his environment” (Weissenborn, 1906a, p.168). Therefore, animal worship could be considered to involve many of the animal rituals performed by humans, especially in pre-modern societies, such as the glorification of animal deities, animal sacrifice, and even simply showing great respect for animal beings.

The development of Christianity and Islam has affected the spread of animal worship The idea that divinity embodies itself in animals, such as a deity incarnate, and then lives on earth among human beings has been marginalized by Christian and Islamic religions (Morris, 2000, p. 26). In churches such as Independent Assemblies of God and Pentecostal, animals have very little religious significance (Schoffeleers, 1985; Peltzer, 1987; Qtd. in Morris, 2000, p. 25). Animals have become less and less important and symbolic in cult rituals and religion, especially among African cultures, as Christianity and Islamic religions have spread (Morris, 2000, p. 24).

The origins of animal worship have been the subject of many theories. The classical author Diodorus explained the origin of animal-worship by recalling the myth in which the gods, supposedly threatened by giants, hid under the guise of animals. The people then naturally began to worship the animals that their gods had disguised themselves as and continued this act even after the gods returned to their normal state (Lubbock, 2005, p.252). In 1906, Weissenborn suggested that animal worship resulted from man’s natural curiosity. Primitive man would observe an animal that had a unique trait and the inexplicability of this trait would appeal to man’s curiosity (Weissenborn, 1906b, p.282). Wonder resulted from primitive man’s observations of this distinctive trait and this wonder eventually induced adoration. Thus, primitive man worshipped animals that had inimitable traits (Weissenborn, 1906b, p.282). Lubbock put forward a more recent view. Lubbock proposed that animal-worship originated from family names. In societies, families would name themselves and their children after certain animals and eventually came to hold that animal above other animals. Eventually, these opinions turned into deep respect and evolved into fully developed worship of the family animal (Lubbock, 2005, p.253).

Animal cults may be classified in two ways:

  • according to their outward form;
  • according to their inward meaning, which may of course undergo transformations.

Contents

[edit] Classification by outward form

There are two broad divisions:

  1. all animals of a given species are sacred, perhaps owing to the impossibility of distinguishing the sacred few from the profane crowd; (Sacred-profane dichotomy)
  2. one or a fixed number of a species are sacred. It is probable that the first of these forms is the primary one and the second in most cases a development from it due to
    1. the influence of other individual cults,
    2. anthropomorphic tendencies,
    3. the influence of chieftainship, hereditary and otherwise,
    4. annual sacrifice of the sacred animal and mystical ideas connected therewith,
    5. syncretism, due either to unity of function or to a philosophic unification,
    6. the desire to do honour to the species in the person of one of its members, and possibly other less easily traceable causes.

[edit] Classification by inward meaning

Treating cults according to their meaning, which is not necessarily identical with the cause which first led to the deification of the animal in question, we can classify them under ten specific heads:

[edit] Pastoral cults

The pastoral type falls into two sub-types, in which the species

  1. is spared and
  2. sometimes receives special honour at intervals in the person of an individual. (See Cattle, Buffalo, below.)

[edit] Hunting cults

In hunting cults the species is habitually killed, but

  1. occasionally honoured in the person of a single individual, or
  2. each slaughtered animal receives divine honours. (See Bear, below.)

[edit] Dangerous or noxious animals

The cult of dangerous animals is due

  1. to the fear that the soul of the slain beast may take vengeance on the hunter,
  2. to a desire to placate the rest of the species. (See Leopard, below.)

[edit] Animals regarded as human souls or their embodiment

Animals are frequently regarded as the abode, temporary or permanent, of the souls of the dead, sometimes as the actual souls of the dead. Respect for them is due to two main reasons:

  1. the kinsmen of the dead desire to preserve the goodwill of their dead relatives;
  2. they wish at the same time to secure that their kinsmen are not molested and caused to undergo unnecessary suffering. (See Serpent, below.)

[edit] Totemistic cults

One of the most widely found modes of showing respect to animals is known as totemism (see totem), but except in decadent forms there is but little positive worship; in Central Australia, however, the rites of the Wollunqua totem group are directed towards placating this mythical animal, and cannot be termed anything but religious ceremonies.


In secret societies we find bodies of men grouped together with a single tutelary animal; the individual, in the same way, acquires the nagual or individual totem, sometimes by ceremonies of the nature of the bloodbond.

[edit] Cults of tree and vegetation spirits

Spirits of vegetation in ancient and modern Europe and in China are conceived in animal form. (See Goat, below.)

[edit] Cults of ominous animals

The ominous animal or bird may develop into a deity. (See Hawk, below.)

[edit] Cults, probably derivative, of animals associated with certain deities

It is commonly assumed that the animals associated with certain deities are sacred because the god was originally theriomorphic; this is doubtless the case in certain instances; but Apollo Smintheus, Dionysus Bassareus and other examples seem to show that the god may have been appealed to for help and thus become associated with the animals from whom he protected the crops, and so on.

[edit] Cults of animals used in magic

The use of animals in magic may sometimes give rise to a kind of respect for them, but this is of a negative nature. See, however, articles by Preuss in Globus, vol. lxvii., in which he maintains that animals of magical influence are elevated into divinities. michael uses magic such as this. he is an ancient emperor of Islamic Empire.

[edit] Animal Cults

When a god is respected or worshipped by means of a representative animal, an animal cult is formed (Teeter et al., 2002, p. 355). The origin of such cults developed from a distinction that primitive man lacked between animals and humanity (Raglan, 1935, p. 331). This lack of discernment caused humans to look upon animals as equals. Therefore, it was just as simple for them to represent their gods in an animal form as opposed to a human form because in primitive man’s judgment animals and human were equal (Gilbert, Qtd. in Raglan, 1935, p. 331).

[edit] Bear

Main article: Bear worship

The bear enjoys a large measure of respect from all cultures that come in contact with it, which shows itself in apologies and in festivals in its honour. The most notable ceremonies involving bears are found in East Asia.

There is a festival among the Nivkhs that takes the form of a celebration in honour of a recently dead kinsman, to whom the spirit of the bear is sent. There have been some attempts to revive the practice.

There is a good deal of evidence to connect the Greek goddess Artemis with a cult of the bear. Girls danced as "bears" in her honour, and might not marry before undergoing this ceremony. According to mythology, the goddess once transformed a nymph into a bear and then into the constellation Ursa Major.

The bear is traditionally associated with Bern, Switzerland. It is believed that the city's name derives from the Germanic word for "bears" (Bären in German) and a bear is featured on the city's flag and coat of arms. In 1832 a statue of the Celtic bear goddess Artio was dug up there.

[edit] An Ancient Bear Cult in the Middle Paleolithic Period

The existence of an ancient bear cult in the middle Paleolithic period has been a topic of discussion spurred by archaeological findings (Wunn, 2000, p. 434-435). Ancient bear bones have been discovered in several different caves and are believed by some archaeologists to be evidence of a bear cult during the Paleolithic era. It was not the mere presence of these bones that intrigued archaeologists, but their peculiar arrangement (Wunn, 2000, p. 435). Upon excavation, archaeologists on site determined that the bones were found arranged in such a way that it was not naturally possible (Wunn, 2000, p. 435). Emil Bächler, a main supporter of the argument for the presence of an ancient bear cult, found bear remains in Switzerland and at Mornova Cave in Slovenia. Along with Bächler’s discovery, bear skulls were found by André Leroi-Gourhan arranged in a perfect circle in Saône-et-Loire (Wunn, 2000, p. 435). The discovery of designs such as those found by Leroi-Gourhan suggests that these bear remains were placed in their arrangement intentionally; an act which has been attributed to H. Neanderthalensis and is assumed to have been a part of some sort of ceremony (Wunn, 2000, p. 435).

While some of these findings have been interpreted to indicate the presence of an ancient bear cult, certain analyses and discussions have led to contradicting results. According to Ina Wunn, based on the information archaeologists have about primitive man and bear cults, if Neanderthals did, in fact, worship bears, there should be evidence of it in their settlements and camps (Wunn, 2000, p. 436). Most bear remains have been found in caves, however, and not within early human settlements (Wunn, 2000, p. 436). This information has implied the non-existence of an ancient bear cult and has instigated the development of new theories. Many archaeologists, including Ina Wunn, have come to believe that since most bear species reside and hide their young in caves during the winter months for hibernation, it is possible that their remains were found in the caves because caves were their natural habitat (Wunn, 2000, p. 436 - 437). Bears lived inside these caves and perished for various reasons, whether it was illness or starvation (Wunn, 2000, p. 437). Wunn argues that the placement of these remains, whether it appears to be an identified pattern or not, is due to natural causes such as wind, sediment, or water (Wunn, 2000, p. 437-438). Therefore, in Wunn’s opinion, the assortment of bear remains in caves did not result from human activities and there is no evidence for a bear cult during the middle Paleolithic era (Wunn, 2000, p. 438). Certain archaeologists, such as Emil Bächler, continue to use their excavations to support that an ancient bear cult did exist (Wunn, 2000).

[edit] The Ainu

The Ainu people, who live on select islands in the Japanese archipelago, call the bear “kamui” in their language, which translates to mean god. While many other animals are considered to be gods in the Ainu culture, the bear is the head of the gods (Kindaichi, 1949, p. 345). For the Ainu, when the gods visit the world of man, they don fur and claws and take on the physical appearance of an animal. Usually, however, when the term “kamui” is used, it essentially means a bear (Kindaichi, 1949, p. 345). The Ainu people willingly and thankfully ate the bear as they believed that the disguise (the flesh and fur) of any god was a gift to the home that the god chose to visit (Kindaichi, 1949, p. 348).

While on earth -- the world of man -- the Ainu believed that the gods appeared in the form of animals. The gods had the capability of taking human form, but they only took this form in their home, the country of the gods, which is outside the world of man (Kindaichi, 1949, p. 345). To return a god back to his country, the people would sacrifice and eat the animal sending the god’s spirit away with civility. This ritual is called Omante and usually involves a dear or adult bear (Kindaichi, 1949, p. 348).

Omante occurred when the people sacrificed an adult bear, but when they caught a bear cub they performed a different ritual which is called Iomante, in the Ainu language, or Kumamatsuri. Kumamatsuri translates to mean “the bear festival” and Iomante means “sending off” (Kindaichi, 1949, p. 348-349). The event of Kumamatsuri began with the capture of a young bear cub. As if he was a child given by the gods, the cub was fed human food from a carved wooden platter and was treated better than Ainu children for they thought of him as a god (Kindaichi, 1949, p. 349). If the cub was too young and lacked the teeth to properly chew food, a nursing mother will let him suckle from her own breast (Kindaichi, 1949, p. 349). When the cub reaches 2-3 years of age, the cub is taken to the altar and then sacrificed. Usually, Kumamatsuri occurs in midwinter when the bear meat is the best from the added fat (Kindaichi, 1949, p. 349). The villagers will shoot it with both normal and ceremonial arrows, make offerings, dance, and pour wine on top of the cub corpse (Kindaichi, 1949, p. 349). The words of sending off for the bear god are then recited. This festivity lasts for three days and three nights to properly return the bear god to his home (Kindaichi, 1949, p. 349).

[edit] Bison and Cattle

Main article: bull worship

Cattle and bison are respected by many pastoral peoples that rely on the animals for sustenance and the killing of an ox is a sacrificial function.

The Toda of southern India abstain from the flesh of their domestic animal, the buffalo. However, once a year they sacrifice a bull calf, which is eaten in the forest by the adult males. The buffalo plays an important part in many Toda rituals. These buffalo are currently endangered.

Conspicuous among Egyptian animal cults was that of the bull, Apis. It was distinguished by certain marks, and when the old Apis died a new one was sought. The finder was rewarded, and the bull underwent four months' education at Nilopolis. Its birthday was celebrated once a year when oxen, which had to be pure white, were sacrificed to it. Women were forbidden to approach it when once its education was finished. Oracles were obtained from it in various ways. After death it was mummified and buried in a rock-tomb. Less widespread was the cult of the Mnevis, also consecrated to Osiris.

Similar observances are found in our own day on the Upper Nile. The Nuba and Nuer revere cattle. The Angoni of Central Africa and the Sakalava of Madagascar keep sacred bulls. In India respect for the cow is widespread, but is of post-Vedic origin; there is little actual worship, but the products of the cow are important in magic.

While there are several animals that are worshipped in India, the supreme position is held by the cow (Margul, 1968, p. 63). The humped zebu, a breed of cow, is central to the religion of Hinduism (Margul, 1968, p. 63). Mythological legends have supported the sanctity of the zebu throughout India (Margul, 1968, p. 64). Such myths have included the creation of a divine cow mother and a cow heaven by the God, Brahma and Prithi, the sovereign of the universe, created the earth’s vegetation, edible fruits and vegetables, disguised as a cow (Margul, 1968, p. 64).

According to Tadeusz Margul, observations of the Hindu religion and the cow has led to a misunderstanding that Hindi have a servile relationship with the zebu, giving prayers and offerings to it daily. Typically, however, only during the Cow Holiday, an annual event, is the cow the recipient of such practices (Margul, 1968, p. 65). Margul suggests that sanctity of the cow is based on four foundations: abstaining from cow slaughter, abstaining from beef consumption, control of breeding and ownership, and belief in purification qualities of cow products (milk, curd, ghee, dung, and urine) (Margul, 1968, p. 65-66).

[edit] Crow/Raven

The Raven is the chief deity of the Tlingit people of Alaska. All over that region it is the chief figure in a group of myths, fulfilling the office of a culture hero who brings the light, gives fire to mankind, and so on. Together with the eagle-hawk the crow plays a great part in the mythology of southeastern Australia.

[edit] Dog

Actual dog worship is uncommon. The Nosarii of western Asia are said to worship a dog. The Kalang of Java had a cult of the red dog, each family keeping one in the house. According to one authority the dogs are images of wood which are worshipped after the death of a member of the family and burnt after a thousand days. In Nepal it is said that dogs are worshipped at the festival called Khicha Puja. Among the Harranians dogs were sacred, but this was rather as brothers of the mystae.

[edit] The "Dog House"

There is a temple in Isin (located in Mesopotamia) that is named é-ur-gi7-ra which translates to mean “dog house” (Livingstone, 1988, p. 54). Enlilbani, a king from the Old Babylonian First Dynasty of Isin, commemorated the temple to the goddess Ninisina (Shaffer, 1974, p. 251-252). Although there is a small amount of detail known about it, there is enough information to confirm that a dog cult did exist in this area (Livingstone, 1988, p. 58). Usually, dogs were only associated with the Gula cult, but there is some information, like Enlilbani’s commemoration, to suggest that dogs were also important to the cult of Ninisina (Livingstone, 1988, p. 58). Gula was another goddess who was closely associated to Ninisina (Shaffer, 1974, p. 253). More than 30 dog burials, numerous dog sculptures, and dog drawings were discovered when the area around this Ninisina temple was excavated (Shaffer, 1974, p. 252). the Gula cult, the dog was used in oaths and was sometimes referred to as a divinity (Livingstone, 1988, p. 58).


[edit] Elephant

In Thailand it is believed that a white elephant may contain the soul of a dead person, perhaps a Buddha. When one is taken the capturer is rewarded and the animal brought to the king to be kept ever afterwards. It cannot be bought or sold. It is baptized and fêted and mourned for like a human being at its death. In some parts of Indo-China the belief is that the soul of the elephant may injure people after death; it is therefore fêted by a whole village. In Cambodia it is held to bring luck to the kingdom. The cult of the white elephant is also found at Ennarea in southern Ethiopia. In India, the popular Hindu god Ganesha has the head of an elephant and a torso of a human.

In Surat, unmarried Anāvil girls participate in a holiday referred to as Alunām (Naik, 1958, p.393). This holiday is to honor the goddess Pārvatī. During this celebration, a clay elephant is prepared. Every day, the unmarried women worship this elephant by dancing, singing songs, and abstaining from eating salt. On the final day of Alunām, the clay elephant is immersed in some body of water (Naik, 1958, p.393).

Certain cultures also used elephant figurines to display the animal’s importance. There was evidence of an ancient elephant cult in Sumatra (Schnitger, 1938, p. 41). Stone elephant figurines were built as “seats of the souls” in the Sumatran culture (Schnitger, 1938, p. 41). In North Borneo, however, wooden elephant figurines were placed on the top of a bamboo pole. This bamboo pole was only erected after the tribe chief had collected a certain number of human heads (Schnitger, 1938, p. 41).

[edit] Fish and Whale

According to the Jewish scholar Rashi, the Canaanite god Dagon was a fish god. This tradition may have originated here, with a misinterpretation, but recently uncovered reliefs suggest a fish-god with human head and hands was worshipped by people who wore fish-skins.

Supposedly, there were sacred fish in the temples of Apollo and Aphrodite in Greece, which may point to a fish cult. The goddess at Ashkelon, Atargatis was depicted as half woman, half fish, and according to Xenophon the fish of the Chalus were regarded as gods.

In Japan, there was a deity called Ebisu-gami who, according to Sakurada Katsunori, was widely revered by fishing communities and industries (Qtd. in Naumann, 1974, p. 1). Ebisu, in later traditions, normally appeared in the form of a fisherman holding a fishing pole and carrying a red tai (a perch), but would sometimes take the form of a whale, shark, human corpse, or rock (Naumann, 1974, p. 1). The general image of Ebisu, however, appears to be the whale or the shark, according to Sakurada (Qtd. in Naumann, 1974, p. 2).

During Ebisu-gami festivals, there have been legends told of strange fish creatures which have arrived and been considered sacred. Examples of such fish creatures include familiar species of fish with multiple tails (Naumann, 1974, p. 2). Sometimes these fish were considered to be simply an offering to the deity. Other times, however, they were considered to be Ebisu himself, visiting on the festival day (Naumann, 1974, p. 2).

Other examples of a prevalent whale cult in Japan occur around the coastal area. There are cemeteries with memorial stones dedicated to the whales which were hunted and killed to feed the people (Naumann, 1974, p. 4). Buddhist epitaphs mark these stones which implore that Buddha be reborn as a whale (Naumann, 1974, p. 4). Along with these memorials, there is evidence that whale embryos, found in a deceased mother’s womb, were extracted and buried with the same respect as a human being (Naumann, 1974, p. 5). For certain shrines, the bones of a perished whale were also deposited in the area (Naumann, 1974, p. 5).

n Alaska, there were certain tribes that had ceremonial tributes to pieces of a whale after it was captured in a hunt (Lantis 1938, p. 445). Some tribes brought the hump, the fins, or the nose of the whale into their camps or the whaler’s house. These parts were meant to represent the entirety of the whale and were honored as such during the festival (Lantis 1938, p. 445). The bones of a whale, however, were also given ritual treatment. The Alaskan tribes that participated in such acts believed that their rituals protected the whale’s soul from injury and it could then be free to return to the sea (Lantis 1938, p. 445).

[edit] Frigate Bird

On Easter Island until the 1860s there was a Tangata manu (Bird man) cult which has left us Paintings and Petroglyphs of Birdmen (half men half Frigate birds). The cult involved an annual race to collect the first Sooty Tern egg of the season from the islet of Moto Iti and take it to Orongo.

The Frigate Bird Cult is thought to have originated in the Solomon Islands before immigrating to Easter Island where it became obsolete (Balfour 1917, p. 374). The Frigate-Bird was a representation of the god Make-make, the god of the sea-bird’s egg on Easter Island (Balfour 1917, p. 374).

[edit] Goat

Silenus, the Satyrs and the Fauns were either capriform or had some part of their bodies shaped like that of a goat. In northern Europe the wood spirit, Leszi, is believed to have a goat's horns, ears and legs. In Africa the Bijago people are said to have a goat as their principal divinity. A deity known as the Goat of Mendes is associated with the pentagram.

In Greece, Italy, and Egypt, the goat was worshipped in both goat form and phallic form (Neave 1988, p. 8). This type of worship has sometimes been said to have originated from the goat’s increased sex drive. One male goat was capable of fertilizing 150 females (Neave 1988, p. 8). The Greek god Pan was depicted as having goat characteristics, such as hooves, horns, and a beard. Along with Pan, the goat was closely related to Dionysus during the Roman era (Neave 1988, p. 8). To honor Dionysus, Romans would tear apart a goat and eat it alive. The goat was commonly associated with dark arts and the devil. This association was amplified in Europe during the Middle Ages (Neave 1988, p. 8).

Excavations in Central Asia have revealed ancient ritual goat-burial that show a religious significance of the goat predominantly in the Afghanistan area (Sidky 1990, p. 286). These findings have been used as evidence for a goat-cult of Asia originating either in the Neolithic or Bronze Ages (Sidky 1990, p. 286). An example of a goat-burial finding was discovered on the Oxus River. Along these banks, a Neanderthal grave was excavated surrounded by several pairs of goat horns, suggesting significance of goats in Central Asian religion (Sidky 1990, p. 286).

[edit] Hawk

North Borneo treated the hawk as a god, but it was technically the messenger of the people’s Supreme God (Waterbury 1952, p. 62). There were rituals that involved the hawk when the natives wished to make decisions about certain events, such as journeys from home, major agricultural work, and war (Waterbury 1952, p. 62). In North Borneo we seem to see the evolution of a god in the three stages of the cult of the hawk among the Kenyahs, the Kayans and the sea Dyaks. The Kenyahs will not kill it, address to it thanks for assistance, and formally consult it before leaving home on an expedition. It seems, however, to be regarded as the messenger of the supreme god Balli Penyalong. The Kayans have a hawk-god, Laki Neho, but seem to regard the hawk as the servant of the chief god, Laki Tenangan. Singalang Burong, the hawk-god of the Dyaks, is completely anthropomorphized. He is god of omens and ruler of the omen birds, but the hawk is not his messenger. For he never leaves his house. Stories are, however, told of his attending feasts in human form and flying away in hawk form when all was over.

According to Florance Waterbury, hawk worship was universal (Waterbury 1952, p. 26). This particular bird was “a heavenly deity; its wings were the sky, the sun and moon were its eyes” (Waterbury 1952, p. 26). The hawk is commonly associated with the Egyptian god Horus. The souls of former pharaohs were the followers of Horus and therefore, the hawk (Waterbury 1952, p. 26). Horus was depicted by the Egyptians as a human body with a hawk head after the Fourth and Fifth Dynasty, but before that he was represented as a hawk (Waterbury 1952, p. 27).

Egypt was not the only location of hawk worshippers. There were several other cultures which held the hawk in high regard. The hawk was a deity on the island of Hawaii and symbolized swift justice (Waterbury 1952, p. 62). Along with the lone island from the Hawaiian archipelago, the Fiji islands also had some tribes who worshipped a hawk god (Waterbury 1952, p. 62).

[edit] Horse

Main article: Horse worship

There is some reason to believe that Poseidon, like other water gods, was originally conceived under the form of a horse. In the cave of Phigalia Demeter was, according to popular tradition, represented with the head and mane of a horse, possibly a relic of the time when a non-specialized corn-spirit bore this form. Her priests were called Poloi (Greek for "colts") in Laconia. In Gaul we find a horse-goddess, Epona. There are also traces of a horse-god, Rudiobus. The Gonds in India worship a horse-god, Koda Pen, in the form of a shapeless stone, but it is not clear that the horse is regarded as divine. The horse or mare is a common form of the corn-spirit in Europe.

Among the Balkan culture, swaddling an unmarried person in a horse-girth is a typical ritual. It is thought that the sexual potency of the horse is passed to the individual wrapped in its girth (Vukanović 1980, p. 112). Along with the Balkan swaddling, Virgil’s Aeneid bases the founding of the great city of Carthage upon a horse (Qtd. in Brown 1950, p. 32). When the Phoenicians dug up a horse head from the ground they decided to build their city (Carthage) upon that spot because the horse was a sign of success (Qtd. in Brown 1950, p. 32). Thus, Brown argued that the horse was sacred to the Phoenician people (Brown 1950, p. 32).

[edit] Leopard

The cult of the leopard is widely found in West Africa. Among the Ashanti people a man who kills one is liable to be put to death; no leopard skin may be exposed to view, but a stuffed leopard is worshiped. On the Gold Coast a leopard hunter who has killed his victim is carried round the town behind the body of the leopard; he may not speak, must besmear himself so as to look like a leopard and imitate its movements. In Loango a prince's cap is put upon the head of a dead leopard, and dances are held in its honour.

[edit] Lion

The lion was associated with the Egyptian deities Horus, Nefertum, Ra and Sekhmet. There was a lion-god at Baalbek . The pre-Islamic Arabs had a lion-god, Yaghuth. In modern Africa we find a lion-idol among the Balonda.

In Judaism the patriarch Jacob refers to his son Judah as a Gur Aryeh גּוּר אַרְיֵה יְהוּדָה , a "Young Lion" (Genesis 49:9) when blessing him. Thus the Lion of Judah started to be reverenced in some others abrahamic cults, symbolising their profets, as such as Jesus and Haile Selassie I, the ras Tafari.

[edit] Lizard

The cult of the lizard is most prominent in the Pacific, where it appears as an incarnation of Tangaloa. In Easter Island a form of the house-god is the lizard. It is also a tutelary deity in Madagascar.

[edit] Mantis

Cagn is a prominent figure in Bushman mythology. The mantis and the caterpillar, Ngo, are his incarnations. It was called the "Hottentots' god" by early European settlers.

[edit] Monkey

In India the monkey-servant of God, Hanuman, is a prominent figure. In orthodox villages monkeys are safe from harm. Monkeys are said to be worshipped in Togo. At Porto Novo, in French West Africa, twins have tutelary spirits in the shape of small monkeys.

[edit] Rabbit

In North America the Algonquian tribes had as their chief deity a "mighty great hare" to whom they went at death. According to one account he lived in the east, according to another in the north. In his anthropomorphized form he was known as Menabosho or Michabo.

[edit] Rat

In Hindu mythology rat has a sacred position. Rat is believed to be the vehicle of Lord Ganesh in Hinduism. There is a temple in Deshnoke near Bikaner,India where rats are worshiped.

[edit] Serpent

The worship of the serpent is found in many parts of the Old World, although it is not unknown in the Americas. In Australia, the Aboriginal people worship a huge python, known by a variety of names but universally referred to as the Rainbow Serpent, that was said to have created the landscape, embodied the spirit of fresh water and punished lawbreakers. The Aborigines in southwest Australia called the serpent the Waugyl, while the Warramunga of the east coast worshipped the mythical Wollunqua.

In 1940, Eva Meyerowitz wrote of an earthenware pot that was stored at the Museum of Achimota College in Gold Coast. The base of the neck of this pot is surrounded by the rainbow snake (Meyerowitz 1940, p. 48). The legend of this creature explains that the rainbow snake only emerged from its home when it was thirsty. Keeping its tail on the ground the snake would raise its head to the sky looking for the rain god. As it drank great quantities of water, the snake would spill some which would fall to the earth as rain (Meyerowitz 1940, p. 48).

There are four other snakes on the sides of this pot: Danh – gbi, the life giving snake, Li, for protection, Liwui, which was associated with Wu, god of the sea, and Fa, the messenger of the gods (Meyerowitz 1940, p. 48). The first three snakes Danh – gbi, Li, Liwui were all worshipped at Whydah, Dahomey where the serpent cult originated (Meyerowitz 1940, p. 48). For the Dahomeans, the spirit of the serpent was one to be feared as he was unforgiving (Nida & Smalley 1959, p. 17). They believed that the serpent spirit could manifest itself in any long, winding objects such as plant roots and animal nerves. They also believed it could manifest itself as the umbilical cord, making it a symbol of fertility and life (Nida & Smalley 1959, p. 17).

In Africa the chief centre of serpent worship was Dahomey. but the cult of the python seems to have been of exotic origin, dating back to the first quarter of the 17th century. By the conquest of Whydah the Dahomeyans were brought in contact with a people of serpent worshippers, and ended by adopting from them the beliefs which they at first despised. At Whydah, the chief centre, there is a serpent temple, tenanted by some fifty snakes. Every python of the danh-gbi kind must be treated with respect, and death is the penalty for killing one, even by accident. Danh-gbi has numerous wives, who until 1857 took part in a public procession from which the profane crowd was excluded; a python was carried round the town in a hammock, perhaps as a ceremony for the expulsion of evils. The rainbow-god of the Ashanti was also conceived to have the form of a snake. His messenger was said to be a small variety of boa. but only certain individuals, not the whole species, were sacred. In many parts of Africa the serpent is looked upon as the incarnation of deceased relatives. Among the Amazulu, as among the Betsileo of Madagascar, certain species are assigned as the abode of certain classes. The Maasai, on the other hand, regard each species as the habitat of a particular family of the tribe.

In America some of the Native American tribes give reverence to the rattlesnake as grandfather and king of snakes who is able to give fair winds or cause tempest. Among the Hopi of Arizona the serpent figures largely in one of the dances. The rattlesnake was worshipped in the Natchez temple of the sun and the Aztec deity Quetzalcoatl was a feathered serpent-god. In many MesoAmerican cultures, the serpent was regarded as a portal between two worlds. The tribes of Peru are said to have adored great snakes in the pre-Inca days and in Chile the Mapuche made a serpent figure in their deluge beliefs.

Snake worship refers to the high status of snakes in Hindu mythology.Over a large part of India there are carved representations of cobras (nagas) or stones as substitutes. To these human food and flowers are offered and lights are burned before the shrines. Among the Dravidians a cobra which is accidentally killed is burned like a human being; no one would kill one intentionally. The serpent-god's image is carried in an annual procession by a celibate priestess.

At one time there were many prevalent different renditions of the serpent cult located in India. In Northern India, a masculine version of the serpent named Nagaraja and known as the “king of the serpents” was worshipped. Instead of the “king of the serpents,” actual live snakes were worshipped in South India (Bhattacharyya 1965, p. 1). The Manasa-cult in Bengal, India, however, was dedicated to the anthropomorphic serpent goddess, Manasa (Bhattacharyya 1965, p. 1).

Different districts of Bengal celebrated the serpent in various ways. In the Bengal districts of East Mymensing, West Syhlet, and North Tippera, serpent-worship rituals were very similar, however (Bhattacharyya 1965, p. 5). On the very last day of the Bengali month Sravana (July-August), all of these districts celebrated serpent-worship each year (Bhattacharyya 1965, p. 5). Regardless of their class and station, every family during this time created a clay model of the serpent-deity – usually the serpent-goddess with two snakes spreading their hoods on her shoulders. The people worshipped this model at their homes and sacrificed a goat or a pigeon for the deity’s honor (Bhattacharyya 1965, p. 5). Before the clay goddess was submerged in water at the end of the festival, the clay snakes were taken from her shoulders. The people believed that the earth these snakes were made from cured illnesses, especially children’s diseases (Bhattacharyya 1965, p. 6).

These districts also worshipped an object know as a Karandi (Bhattacharyya 1965, p. 6).Resembling a small house made of cork, the Karandi is decorated with images of snakes, the snake goddess, and snake legends on its walls and roof (Bhattacharyya 1965, p. 6). The blood of the sacrificed animals was sprinkled on the Karandi and it also was submerged in the river at the end of the festival (Bhattacharyya 1965, p. 6).There are several more interesting examples of serpent-worship in India, see "The Serpent as the Folk-Deity in Bengal" for more information.

Serpent worship was well known in ancient Europe. There does not appear to be much ground for supposing that Aesculapius was a serpent-god in spite of his connection with serpents. On the other hand, we learn from Herodotus of the great serpent which defended the citadel of Athens. The Roman genius loci took the form of a serpent where a snake was kept and fed with milk in the temple of Potrimpos, an old Slavonic god. On the Iberian Peninsula there is evidence that before the introduction of Christianity, and perhaps more strongly before invasions of the Romans, Serpent-worship was part of local religion. To this day there are numerous traces in popular belief, especially in Germany, of respect for the snake, which seems to be a survival of ancestor worship, such as still exists among the Zulus and other tribes; the "house-snake," as it is called, cares for the cows and the children, and its appearance is an omen of death, and the life of a pair of house-snakes is often held to be bound up with that of the master and mistress themselves. Tradition says that one of the Gnostic sects known as the Ophites caused a tame serpent to coil round the sacramental bread and worshipped it as the representative of the Saviour.

[edit] Sheep

Only in Africa do we find a sheep-god proper. Amun, the god of Thebes, Egypt, was represented as ram-headed. His worshippers held the ram to be sacred, however, it was sacrificed once a year. Its fleece formed the clothing of the idol. Another Egyptian ram-headed god was Banebdjed, a form of Osiris.

[edit] Tiger

The tiger is associated with the Hindu deities Shiva and Durga. In Pokhara, Nepal the tiger festival is known as Bagh Jatra. Celebrants dance disguised as tigers and "hunted". The Warali tribe of Maharashtra, India worship Waghia the lord of tigers in the form of a shapeless stone. In Hanoi and Manchuria tiger-gods are also found.

Some cultures that celebrated tiger worship are still represented contemporarily. In the suburbs of Kunming, China, there is a tourist attraction where the tiger worship of the Yi is displayed for visitors. This attraction called the Solar Calendar Square is complete with a growling tiger statue, measuring to be five meters high (Harrell & Yongxiang 2003, p. 380). In Chuxiong of China, a similar attraction exists. A tiger totem is presented for tourists; the totem portrays the Yi belief of the tiger setting the entire world in motion. A tiger dance of the Shuangbai County is also performed at such places explaining the history of the Yi and their worship of tigers (Harrell & Yongxiang 2003, p. 380).

Along with these tourist attractions that display historical practices of the Yi, there is also additional evidence for tiger worship. Tigers were found depicted on small stones. These stones were pierced and worn as amulets, suggesting that the tiger had a certain power of protection for its wearer (Waterbury 1952, p. 76). The Queen Mother deity of the west, Hsi Wang Mu, sometimes possessed a tail of a tiger in her depictions and, like the tiger, was associated with the mountains (Waterbury 1952, p. 76). The tiger was also a deity for both the Tungus and the Black Pottery people (Waterbury 1952, p. 80).

[edit] Wolf

Both Zeus and Apollo were associated with the wolf by the Greeks, but it is not clear that this implies a previous cult of the wolf. It is frequently found among the tutelary deities of North American dancing or secret societies. The Tlingit had a god, Khanukh, whose name means "wolf," and worshipped a wolf-headed image.

[edit] Ancient Egypt

It was once thought that animal worship in ancient Egypt originated from helmets (Lubbock, 2005, p.252). The helmets of Ancient Egyptian chiefs were shaped as animal heads and thus, became a basis for a theory to the origin of animal worship in Ancient Egypt (Lubbock, 2005, p.252-253). There are some problems with this claim, however. This theory can not be generalized to account for other cultures. While other cultures did participate in animal worship, not all of them possessed animal war helmets like Egypt (Lubbock, 2005, p. 253). John Lubbock also argued that animal worship in Egypt appeared before the use of the helmets. This is one theory, though, to why animals were held in such high esteem in Egypt (Lubbock, 2005, p. 253).

Animals are a common subject of Egyptian art. There is no other art in the world where animals are depicted as frequently and in such variety as in Egyptian art (Velde 1980, p. 77). While their role in art conveys the importance of animals to the Egyptian culture, animals’ position in Egyptian religion is usually misunderstood. This resulted principally because of Greek and Roman false impressions of Egypt throughout ancient history (Teeter et al., 2002, p. 335). Thus, two views arose about the animal kingdom’s role in Egyptian religion.

The first view was posed by Herodotus (ca. 500 B.C.). He alleged that Egyptian animal worship implicated “praying to the god to whom the particular creature, whichever it may be, is sacred” (Qtd. in Teeter et al., 2002, p. 335). Contemporary argument would agree with Herodotus’ view, that Egyptians indeed worshipped these animals because they were important to their gods, but were not the gods themselves. The second view was held by Diodorus (first century B.C.) and he stated that “the Egyptians are fanatically addicted to the worship of certain animals, the dead as well as the living” (Qtd. in Teeter et al., 2002, p. 335). Diodorus’ idea of Egyptian animal worship was that the animals were the gods, but this appears not to be the case (Teeter et al., 2002, p. 335).

The Egyptians depicted their gods in both human and animal form because in Ancient Egyptian culture, humans did not have the degree of superiority over the animal kingdom that Western culture currently dictates (Velde 1980, p. 77). Humans and animals were equal in the Egyptian’s eyes. Egyptians worshipped these gods that they portrayed in animal form, but this does not mean that these gods were simple, earthly animals (Velde 1980, p. 79). When they worshipped these creatures the Egyptians were, in fact, worshipping the gods that they represented, not the animal itself, which is Herodotus’ view of Egyptian religion. How animals came to be associated with their related god is extremely hard to prove, due to lack of historical data (Velde 1980, p. 79).

Deity Animal
Ptah Bull
Thoth Ibis/Baboon
Amon Ram
Horus/Ra Falcon
Anubis Jackal/Dog
Sobk Crocodile
Hathor Cow
Sekhmet Lion
Ejo Vulture
Khepri Scarab Beetle
Geb Egyptian Goose

(Armour (1986) Qtd. in Morris 1952, p. 23)

[edit] Some Present-Day Religions with High Regard for Animals

[edit] Buddhism

One of the most important sanctions of the Buddhist faith is the concept of ahimsa, or refraining from the destruction of life (Regenstein 1991, p. 234). According to Buddhist belief, humans do not deserve preferential treatment over other living beings. Thus, the world is not specifically meant for human use and should be shared equally amongst all creatures (Epstein 1990). Buddhists recognize that all animals are sentient and are capable of feeling pain, grief, fear, happiness, and hunger, unlike some other religious sects (Regenstein 1991, p. 234-235). The Dalai Lama once said in an interview, “Even ants and other insects will run away from danger… They have intelligence and want to live too. Why should we harm them?” (Qtd. in Regenstein 1991, p. 235). Not believing in inflicting harm on any living, sentient being, most Buddhists also follow a vegetarian diet to avoid causing pain to animals (Regenstein 1991, p. 238).

Avoiding the destruction of life can also hinder aspects outside of a Buddhist’s diet, such as travel plans. In order to avoid crushing any living thing, be it plant, insect, or animal, Buddhist monks do not travel during rainy seasons (Regenstein 1991, p. 236). Originally, shortly after Buddhism was first founded, monks traveled during all seasons, but the public opinion changed this. The people protested that so much life was crushed and destroyed when monks traveled during the wet season. As a result, monks were required to seek shelter during this season and abstain from going on journeys (Chapple 1993, p. 22).

living creatures, including humans, culminate to form one large, united life-force in the Buddhist religion. Buddhists, therefore, believe that to harm another living creature is to, in fact, harm yourself as all life-forms are interrelated (Regenstein 1991, p. 237). Buddhists have a great deal of respect for all living creatures, sometimes even laying aside their own needs for the protection of animals. There are many parables that depict humans sacrificing their lives so that an animal may live. A prominent story is one where a Buddhist, sacrificing himself, laid down before a lioness so that she could feed her hungry cubs (Chapple 1993, p. 22).

[edit] Jainism

Mahavira, the founder of Jainism, believed that the only way to be released from the cycle of life (birth, death, and then rebirth), one must follow, like Buddhists, ahimsa and not harm any living creature (Regenstein 1991, p. 229). Some Jainists will carry a broom with them and sweep their path as they walk to avoid stepping on any living creature. Jainists will also wear masks over their mouths to prevent swallowing insects and inspect their fruit for worms. The fruit inspection is not, however, because of their aversion of worms, but for the protection of the worms themselves (Regenstein 1991, p. 229-230). Jainists are also only allowed to eat during daylight hours, when their vision is not restricted, so that they avoid eating insects or other small creatures that could possibly be in their food (Regenstein 1991, p. 230).

There is a form of Jainism referred to as lay Jainism that has somewhat less restraining rules (Regenstein 1991, p. 231). Basically lay Jains must distinguish between what forms of violence are necessary and unnecessary, but do not have to abstain from it entirely (Vallely 2002, p. 5). This results in avoiding all forms of hunting, tilling the soil (tilling involved disturbing creatures embedded in the earth), and brewing (brewing involved using living organisms such as yeasts) (Regenstein 1991, p. 231). Food will never be prepared especially for them. They beg for food from others believing that because the food was prepared for someone else, they are not the cause of violence towards living creatures (Vallely 2002, p. 5). Jainists who have the financial capabilities will often visit animal markets and buy animals destined for slaughter, simply to protect them from their deaths (Regenstein 1991, p. 232).

[edit] Hinduism

Hinduism is the primary religion of India (Regenstein 1991, p. 221). Like several other religions that profess animal respect and consideration, ahimsa is a major concept in Hindu belief (Regenstein 1991, p. 223). Humans and animals are one family and therefore, humans should treat all living creatures with respect and kindness. Their pets are often treated as if they are truly members of the family (Regenstein 1991, p. 223-224). While Hindi respect all creatures, the cow is probably the most sacred (Regenstein 1991, p. 225).

There are some exceptions to ahimsa in Hinduism. While Hindu belief forbids the slaughter of animals for human sustenance, animal sacrifice is a common and accepted ritual (Regenstein 1991, p. 225). An explanation for this supposed paradox is that a sacrificial animal is not really considered to be an animal, but a symbol. Thus, when the animal is sacrificed, they are sacrificing the symbol and not the animal (Regenstein 1991, p. 226). Scientific experimentation would also be allowed, so long as the result would be important for society and there were no other alternatives. The killing of an animal for human pleasure or lavishness is prohibited. An example of such lavishness would be a fur coat made from animal skin (Regenstein 1991, p. 226).

[edit] Shamanism and Animals

Animals were an important aspect of the Shaman religion in Central Asia. Also known as “assistant spirits,” “guardian spirits,” and “helping spirits,” animal spirits are an integral part of a shaman’s work. The more animal spirits a shaman had under his control, the more powerful the shaman (Waida, 1983, p. 228-229). When a shaman set out to journey spiritually to the outer world, animals were a key component, assisting him in his work. There were three primary reasons for a shaman to take such a journey: to find a lost soul, to bring an animal spirit to the high gods, or to lead a soul to its new resting place in the underworld. All of these were extremely important to followers of shamanism and animals were extremely important in facilitating the shaman’s efforts (Waida, 1983, p. 231).

An example of animal spirits in Shamanism comes from the Yenisei Ostiaks culture. During a healing procedure, a shaman invokes a number of animal spirits to help him. The spirits arrive and enter his body. The shaman is not possessed by these spirits; he is free to expel them at any time (Waida, 1983, p. 223). His body begins to leap all over the place, symbolizing that his soul is rising, leaving the earth and going up to the sky. It is a bird spirit that is lifting him through the atmosphere and he cries for it to take him higher so he can see further. According to Adolf Friedrich, at this point the shaman’s essence has, in fact, transformed into the bird spirit that crossed the threshold into his body (Waida, 1983, p. 223). He finally spots what he is looking for, the soul of his ill patient. Still assisting him, the animal spirits carry the shaman to the patient’s soul. The shaman retrieves it and returns the soul to its rightful place, healing the patient. Without the presence of animal spirits, the shaman could not have accomplished such a feat (Waida, 1983, p. 231).

In the Inner Eurasian religion, the transformation of a shaman’s essence into an animal spirit is referred to as “becoming animal” (Baldick 2000, p. 167). The importance of animals in this shamanic religion is shown by the capabilities that animals grant to human beings. Without the assistance of animals, humans from Inner Eurasia were not capable of reaching the sky, traveling rapidly throughout the earth, or going beneath the earth’s outer crust, all of which were important activities to the culture (Baldick 2000, p. 167). Heaven was not attainable for a person without the assistance of an eagle. Because of the eagle, an animal, the Inner Eurasians believed that they were capable of achieving their after-life and living in the home of their ancestors and Supreme God after their departure from the earth (Baldick 2000, p. 167). Heaven was represented by the people in assemblies of animals, usually grouped in sevens or nines (Baldick 2000, p. 167). When participating in hunting or warfare, Inner Eurasians also took on animal qualities because they believed it would increase their success (Baldick 2000, p. 167). Animals were a central part of this religion (Baldick 2000, p. 167).

[edit] See also

[edit] References

  • This article incorporates text from the Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition article "Animal worship" by Thomas, Northcote Whitbridge, a publication now in the public domain.
  • Baldick, Julian (2000). “Animal and Shaman: Ancient Religions of Central Asia” New York University Press, New York
  • Balfour, Henry (1917). "Some Ethnological Suggestions in Regard to Easter Island, or Rapanui” Folklore, 28(4).
  • Bhattacharyya, Asutosh (1965). "The Serpent as a Folk-Deity in Bengal” Asian Folklore Studies, 24(1).
  • Brown, Theo (1950). "Tertullian and Horse-Cults in Britain” Folklore, 61(1).
  • Chapple, Christopher (1993). “Nonviolence to Animals, Earth, and Self in Asian Traditions” State University of New York Press, Albany
  • Epstein, Ronald (1990). “A Buddhist Perspective on Animal Rights” San Francisco State University, [1]
  • Harrell, Stevan; Yongxiang, Li (2003). "The History of the History of the Yi, Part II” Modern China, 29(3).
  • Kindaichi, Kyōsuke (1949). "The Concepts behind the Ainu Bear Festival (Kumamatsuri)", Southwestern Journal of Anthropology, 5(4), Trans. Minori Yoshida.
  • Lantis, Margaret (1938). "The Alaska Whale Cult and Its Affinities” American Anthropologist, New Series, 40(3).
  • Livingstone, A (1988). "The Isin “Dog House” Revisited", Journal of Cuneiform Studies, 40(1)
  • Lubbock, John (2005). "The Origin of Civilisation and the Primitive Condition of Man", Kessinger Publishing Company.
  • Margul, Tadeusz (1968). "Present-Day Worship of the Cow in India” Numen, 15(1),
  • Meyerowitz, Eva L. R. (1940). "Snake-Vessels of the Gold Coast” Man, 40.
  • Morris, Brian (2000). "Animals and Ancestors: An Ethnography", Berg, New York.
  • Naik, T.B. (1958). "Religion of the Anāvils of Surat", The Journal of American Folklore, 71(281).
  • Naumann, Nelly (1974). "Whale and Fish Cult in Japan: A Basic Feature of Ebisu Worship", Asian Folklore Studies, 33(1).
  • Neave, Dorinda (1988). "The Witch in Early 16th-Century German Art” Woman’s Art Journal, 9(1).
  • Nida, Eugene A.; Smalley, William A. (1959). "Introducing Animism” Friendship Press, New York.
  • Raglan, Lord (1935). "The Cult of Animals ", Folklore, 46(4).
  • Regenstein, Lewis G. (1991). “Replenish the Earth: a History of Organized Religions’ Treatment of Animals and Nature – Including the Bible’s Message of Conservation and Kindness Toward Animals” Crossroad, New York
  • Schnitger, F.M. (1938). "Prehistoric Monuments in Sumatra", Man, 38.
  • Shaffer, Aaron (1974). "Enlilbaniand the ‘DogHouse’ in Isin", Journal of Cuneifrom Studies, 26(4).
  • Sidky, M. H. (1990). "”Malang”, Sufis, and Mystics: An Ethnographic and Historical Study of Shamanism in Afghanistan” Asian Folklore, 49(2).
  • Teeter, Emily et al. (2000). "A History of the Animal World in the Ancient Near East", ed. Collins, Billie Jean, Vol. 64, Brill, Boston.
  • Vallely, Anne (2002). “Guardians of the Transcendent: An Ethnography of a Jain Ascetic Community” University of Toronto Press, Toronto
  • te Velde, H. (1980). “Numen” 27(1).
  • Vukanović, T. P. (1980). "Swaddling Clothes for the Unmarried and for Herdsmen” Folklore, 91(1).
  • Waida, Manabu (1983). “Problems of Central Asian and Siberian Shamanism”, Numen, 30(2).
  • Waterbury, Florance (1952). "”Bird-Deities in China” Artibus Asiae. Supplementum, 10(2).
  • Weissenborn, Johannes (1906a). "Animal-Worship in Africa", Journal of the Royal African Society, 5(18).
  • Weissenborn, Johannes (1906b). "Animal-Worship in Africa (Concluded from p. 181)", Journal of the Royal African Society, 5(19).
  • Wunn, Ina (2000). "Beginning of Religion", Numen, 47(4).


For a fuller discussion and full references to these and other cults, that of the serpent excepted, see:

  • N. W. Thomas in Hastings' Dictionary of Religions;
  • Frazer, Golden Bough;
  • Campbell's Spirit Basis of Belief and Custom;
  • Maclennan's Studies (series 2);
  • V. Gennep, Tabou et totémisme à Madagascar.
  • For the serpent, see Ellis, Ewe-speaking Peoples, p. 54; Internat. Archiv, xvii. 113; Tylor, Primitive Culture, ii. 239; Fergusson, Tree and Serpent Worship; Mähly, Die Schlange im Mythus; Staniland Wake, Serpent Worship, &c.; 16th Annual Report of the American Bureau of Ethnology, p. 273, and bibliography, p. 312.