Andalusian cadence

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Andalusian cadences are common in Flamenco music.

In music theory, the Andalusian cadence is a chord progression comprising four chords, whose roots descend stepwise, following a particular pattern.^[1] Although it dates back to the Renaissance, its popularity over the centuries has made it one of the most effective sonorities in Western music.^[2]

Despite its name, it is rarely used as a cadence (i.e., occurring only once, when ending a phrase, section, or piece of music^[3]). Most often, Andalusian cadences are used as ostinato formulae (i.e., the cadence repeats over and over again), as seen in many rock songs (e.g. Careful with That Axe, Eugene by Pink Floyd or Runaway by Del Shannon), but also in Classical music, as in J.S. Bach's notable Ciaconna from his Partita in D minor for solo violin, BWV 1004. The Andalusian cadence is also heavily used in Flamenco music, both as a cadence and ostinato.^[1]

The Andalusian cadence not only occurs in its pure state, but also there are plenty of examples with the cadence partially changed or extended. Some changes may strengthen the cadence's dramatic effect^[2], while others undermine it (e.g., Comfortably Numb by Pink Floyd). An extended chord progressions built upon the cadence's four chords can be heard in A Saucerful of Secrets by Pink Floyd.

[edit] Structure

[edit] Preamble: convention in notation

The following analysis adopts the chords' notation system corresponding to that of (traditional) tonality. When working with diatonic chords only, marking any of the seven degrees need no accidental or natural sign next to it. However, diatonicism in tonality always has the meaning of either a natural major scale (e.g., C D E F G A B) or a harmonic minor scale (e.g., C D E F G A B).^[3] While the lack of need for additional signs is obvious with a [natural] major scale, the parallel [harmonic] minor scale will use the given major for a benchmark (so the minor may be treated as a major with steps three and six flatted).^[4] Such flatted steps involve a number of chromatic chords (i.e., chords which incorporate elements outside the seven diatonic steps - of the major, not the minor, in this case), so an accidental should be marked next to the chord's degree (III instead of III).^[4] However, tradition very often abandons these flats.^[3]

A minor scale is much more likely to switch from one variant to another than a major; the different variants involve the chords on steps six and seven to change roots (e.g., in C minor, the sixth may be A or A, while the seventh may be B or B).^[4] In order to avoid confusion, the following analysis will mark an accidental/natural next to each chord, as following: VI, VI, VII and VII.

[edit] Structure of a typical cadence

The Andalusian cadence is designated as a i - VII - VI - V (traditional notation: i - VII - VI - V) progression in a minor key, wherein the "VII" chord has its root on the key's subtonic, which belongs to the natural variant of the given minor scale.^[3] As a requisite for a tonal cadence, the leading tone substitutes the subtonic with the "V", turning it into a major chord which may then most likely lead into "i". However, if this progression is used as a proper cadence (only one occurrence), adding another "i" after the "V" chord is compulsory in traditional music theory.^[2] (For the iv - III - II - I or iv - III - II - I notation of the cadence, see below.)

A typical Andalusian cadence por arriba (i.e. in A minor). G stands for a subtonic and G# is the leading tone. (Listen) (help·info)

[edit] Origins of the cadence

Evidence proves that in Ancient Greece there existed a very popular melodic pattern,^[5] a possible starting point for the Andalusian cadence. It was called the Dorian tetrachord (from which the Dorian mode - the music scale associated with religious rites^[6] - was derived). While Ancient Greeks lacked a harmonic view on music (i.e., working with series of chords),^[5] the chord progression was developed out of the four-note pattern centuries later. However, some theorists consider that the mentioned structure is likely to have occurred earlier in Judah^[5][7] and then, along with several other similar tetrachords, "it would migrate through time and space and contaminate some of the Europe's musical worlds" (Dănceanu, p. 46 - rom. "[...] avea să migreze prin timp şi spaţiu, contaminând unele lumi sonore europene."), including Ancient Greece.^[7]

During the Middle Ages, Western Europe firstly did not show interest in the old Dorian tetrachord and preferred other structures (see Lydian cadence).^[8] A primitive "version" of the Andalusian cadence (more or less close to the Greek tetrachord structure), as its name suggests, might have been brought by the Moors in Southern Spain and then outspread all through the Western European countries, after the French troubadours were influenced themselves by the Spanish music.^[5] However, the Andalusian cadence, as known today (featuring triads), may most likely date back to the Renaissance and not to an earlier stage. While the use of parallel thirds or sixths was witnessed in the 13th century, in France^[7], triads were never employed during the Middle Ages.^[5]

Also, the four-chords structure itself brings about a number of hints, which all lead to the same result:

• the Andalusian cadence closely resembles the first half of the Passamezzo antico, which belongs to 15th century music. The only difference is that of i-VII-VI-V instead of i-VII-i-V. The "VI" might prove an origin only slightly newer than that of Passamezzo antico.^[2] That is because i-VII and VII-i (in a minor key) were two chord moves very popular in late Middle Ages,^[9] while VII-VI arose as a result of advancement in music theory.
• a progression in the typical Baroque style would have avoided subtonal chords, because the tonality was in an early stage where hardly the leading-tone was proposed to introduce dominant chords ("VII" or "V" chords,^[3] which would resolve in most cases on a "I" chord). Moreover, the lack of a leading-tone on the "VII" chord proves that this cadence has an older origin than the tonal system, such as a modal cadence à la Palestrina, where only the "V" in the end would lead to the tonic.^[7]

Some sources state that the "modern" Andalusian cadences (i.e. the pattern now regarded as a set of triad chords' moves) were used for the first time by Claudio Monteverdi in a choral work, Lamento della Ninfa. It was first published in the Eighth Book of Madrigals (1638); it is however most likely that the piece belongs to an earlier stage – other works in the same collection are witnessed to have been played as soon as 1607. The chord progression soon became one of the favourite impovisational frameworks for Italian composers and instrumentalists; therein, it was mainly employed as an ostinato formula.

[edit] Analysis

[edit] Regarding the melody

A minor seventh would be added to the dominant "V" chord to increase tension before resolution (V₇-i).^[3] The roots of the chords belong to a modern phrygian tetrachord (the equivalent of a Greek Dorian tetrachord,^[10] the latter mentioned above), that is to be found as the upper tetrachord of a natural minor scale (for A minor, they are: A G F E).

A remarkable fact about tetrachords was noticed since the Ancient times and rediscovered in early Renaissance: when a tetrachord features a semitone (half-step) between two of its tones, it is the semitone that will determine the melodic tendency of the given tetrachord or mode (when combining tetrachords).^[8] If the semitone falls between the highest two steps, the melody tends to be ascending (e.g. major scales); a semitone between the lowest tones in the tetrachord involves a melody "inclined" to descend. This said, the Phrygian tetrachord, borrowed from traditional music of Eastern Europe and Anatolia,^[8] is to be found also in the Andalusian cadence and sets the mentioned character (the semitone falls between [the roots of] V and VI).

[edit] Modal vs. tonal

A rigorous analysis should take into account the fact that many chord progressions are likely to date back from an epoch prior to early Baroque (usually associated with birth of tonality).^[8] In such cases (also, that of the Andalusian cadence), explanations offered by tonality "neglect" the history and evolution of the chord progression in question. This is because harmonic analyses in tonal style use only two scales (major and minor) when explaining origins of chord moves. In exchange, the luxuriant modal system (i.e., the entirety of musical modes ever created and their specific harmonies - if existing^[8]) offers various plausible origins and explanations for every chord move. However, most classical (Baroque or subsequent) and popular music which makes use of the given chord progression might treat it itself in a tonal manner.^[3]

A number of musicians and theorists (of which, renowned guitarist Manolo Sanlúcar) consider the Andalusian cadence as a chord progression built upon the Phrygian mode.^[11] Since tonality took the first chord in the progression for a tonic ("i"), the Phrygian notation (modal) of the cadence writes as following: iv - III - II - I (or, more commonly, but less correctly, iv - III - II - I^[1]). Though tonal functions have little in common with the Phrygian mode, the four chords could be roughly equalized. (The Phrygian mode is like a natural minor with step two lowered;^[4] however, step three switches between major and minor third, an equivalent to the subtonic/leading tone conflict in the tonal acceptation.) Thus, the "iv" corresponds to a subdominant chord, while "III" is the mediant and "I" is the tonic. The "II" chord has a dominant function,^[11] and may be thought of as a tritone substitution of "V", i.e., the Neapolitan sixth chord.^[4] (The only purpose for highlighting these "functions" is to compare between the modal and tonal views of the cadence. The mode involved in the cadence is not a pure Phrygian, but one whose third step occurs in both instances, minor and major third. This is unacceptable in tonality;^[10] hence, tonal functions cannot be used. A common mistake occurs when the given mode is thought of as major, given that the tonic chord is major.^[1] However, the Phrygian mode features a minor third and the "I" chord may be taken for a borrowed chord, i.e., a Picardy third.)

[edit] Harmonic peculiarities

The tonal system sets three main functions for the diatonic tertian chords: tonic (T), dominant (D) and subdominant (SD). Any sequence through different functions is allowed (e.g. T→D, SD→D), except for D→SD.^[2] A tonal scale's degrees are as following: "I" and "VI" are tonic chords (of which, "I" is stronger; all final cadences end in "I"), "V" and "VII" are dominants (both feature the leading tone and "V" is more potent), "IV" and "II" are subtonic chords ("IV" is stronger). ^[3] ("III" isn't given a precise function, although it may replace a dominant in some cases.) All sequences between same-function chords, from the weaker member to the stronger (e.g. VII - V), are forbidden. When using the natural minor, dominant chords exchange their leading tone for a subtonic; as a result, their dominant quality is strongly undermined.^[3]

A tonal insight on the Andalusian cadence leads to considering the "VII" a local exception: the subtonic it uses for a root should be, however, re-replaced by the leading tone before returning to "i". (The leading tone is heard in the "V" chord, as the chord's major third.) A "VII" would leave the dominant category (compare: "VII") and start acting to the contrary.^[3] That is, a "VII" chord would now prefer moving to a subdominant rather than to a tonic chord. Yet, the Andalusian cadence brings about a limit condition for tonal harmony, with a VII - VI chord move.^[2]

The Andalusian is an authentic cadence, because a dominant chord ("V") comes just before the tonic "i". (Using modal harmonies, the third, and not the fourth chord - "II" - acts as the dominant, substituted to tritone. Even so, the cadence stays authentic. The fourth chord itself is the tonic, so the cadence need not return to the tonal tonic, i.e. modal "iv".)^[3]

[edit] Denominations in Flamenco music

[edit] Basic keys

The standard tuning in guitars determines most Flamenco music to be played only in a few keys. Of those, the most popular are the A minor and D minor (equivalent to E and A Phrygian, respectively)^[1]. They are as following:

• por arriba, which corresponds to the A minor, where an Andalusian cadence consists of the following chord progression: Am - G - F - E
• por medio names the D minor key, in which the Andalusian cadence is built of a Dm - C - B - A progression^[1]

[edit] Derivative keys

Using a capotasto or scordature, other keys can be obtained, mainly derived from the two basic keys. Flamenco guitarists Ramon Montoya and Antonio Chacón were among the first to use the new keys, and given distinctive names:^[11]

[edit] Music examples featuring Andalusian cadences

[edit] Classical music

The following works were ordered by the year of composition (only presumed, in some cases).

• Lamento della Ninfa (first published 1638) by Claudio Monteverdi
• Jalouse envie, air de cour (published 1637, in Airs de cour à 4 & 5 parties, IV, Paris, Pierre Ballard) by Etienne Moulinié
• Cantata Sopra il Passacaglio. Diatonica (published 1654, in L'innocenza dei Ciclopi) by Luigi Pozzi
• Ciaconna from Partita in D minor for solo violin, BWV 1004 (1720) by Johann Sebastian Bach.

Of the 64 variations, 19 constitute a medial episode in parallel D major.^[12] The chaconne form assumes an ostinato formula, whose period is usually four bars long. In Bach's work, the four-bar motif coincides with the descending Phrygian tetrachord and harmonies built upon vary to a certain extent, but mostly resemble the Andalusian cadence.^[13]

• Chaconne for violin and continuo in G minor (year unknown, ca. 1705-ca. 1745 or sometime before 1867), attributed both to Tomaso Antonio Vitali and Ferdinand David.^[14]

Largely built from an Andalusian cadence ostinato, the chaconne starts in G minor and frequently modulates to other keys, however maintaining the cadence's pattern.

• Certain fragments in Carmen (1874) by Georges Bizet (e.g. the Act IV entr'acte)

The Andalusian cadences in Bizet's Carmen are counted along with other "tricks" used to evoke the atmosphere of Spain; they are the more significant, knowing that Bizet never actually visited the country.^[15]

• Fortune plango vulnera from Carmina Burana (1935-6) by Carl Orff

[edit] Popular music

Main article: List of popular music songs featuring Andalusian cadences

Andalusian cadences were heavily used in all popular music genres during the sixties and slightly into the seventies. British rock bands The Kinks and Deep Purple were especially fond of it, while during the 70s Pink Floyd would allude to the progression in numerous songs, however not stating it in its pure form (see below). The 1962 surf rock instrumental version of the Greek song called Misirlou (arranged and played by Dick Dale) turned the Andalusian cadence iconic for surf rock at the time it was featured as the soundtrack for the 1994 film Pulp Fiction.

In the late seventies and eighties only a few hit singles made use of Andalusian cadences (probably the best known example is Sultans of Swing by English band Dire Straits). However, the 1990s brought about a revival of the progression, mainly with the growing interest in Flamenco and Latin music (recent examples include 2002 pop hit Aserejé a.k.a. The Ketchup Song by Spanish band Las Ketchup). On the contrary, a number of indie rock artists of the nineties (such as The Olivia Tremor Control) used such progressions to recreate the 1960s music mood.

[edit] Examples where the progression is somewhat altered

The following is a categorized list of musical examples wherein a chord progression quite similar to the Andalusian cadence occurs; while the items in the top of the list stay as close to a typical cadence, the examples which follow contain progressions where an Andalusian cadence is all the more difficult to recognise (roughly, sorted gradually).

[edit] Reordered or repeated chords

• California Dreamin' (1965) by The Mamas and the Papas, where two chords have changed places: i (- i₂) - VI - VII - V_-3. (Note: the "i₂" notation represents a tonic chord whose seventh falls in the bass; a "_-3" notation suggests a suspended chord resolving to triad^[2])
• Don't Speak (1995, 1997) by No Doubt follows a very similar pattern: i - VI - VII - V
• Invocaţie (engl. "Conjuration", 1975) by Phoenix features an extensive section which combines a i - ii^o₂ - i progression (the tonic is constantly heard on acoustic guitar as a pedal) with a cadence very similar to the Andalusian: i - VII - VI - VII - VI - V_-3. Repeating the chord move "VII - VI" and the suspended dominant chord increase tension before resolution in "i".

[edit] Foreign chords, bassline unchanged

• The song Eclipse (1973) by Pink Floyd also makes use of a very similar progression. However, the tonic "I" is rather a major chord, and the "VII" chord is replaced by a "I₂", which essentially keeps the bassline as is (the minor seventh in "I₇" coincides with the root of "VII", as the former is played in the bass).

[edit] Dominant chord missing

• Careful with That Axe, Eugene (1968) by Pink Floyd, where the "v" chord is given a minor quality (subtonic) and so the song changes to a "modal" sound. Below all chords, a pedal consisting of the tonic chord's root is played.
• A most unusual way of altering the cadence can be heard in Pink Floyd's Comfortably Numb (1979), where the "V" chord is skipped for a "iv". It is as follows: i - VII - VI (- VI₂) - iv (and back to "i"). The resulting progression is on the edge between tonal and modal, where the subtonic doesn't change back into a leading-tone, but the obtained cadence is suitable for tonality (called plagal or backdoor^[2]).

[edit] Extended progressions

• A Saucerful of Secrets (1968) by Pink Floyd features an ostinato extended progression based on the four chords. All chords are diatonic; the progression incorporates the fourth step (subdominant), both minor and major. A major "IV" chord indicates use of the melodic variant of a minor scale (i.e., natural minor with steps six and seven raised - just like a major scale with step three flatted). The whole progression is as follows: i - VII - IV - V - III - VI - IV - VII - V - i - VI - V - iv - III - V.

[edit] Lydian cadence

Although not a very popular notion, some jazz theorists introduced the lydian cadence, which is formally close to an Andalusian cadence, but very distinct as sound. While an Andalusian cadence is built upon steps "I", "VII", "VI" and "V" of a minor scale (at this point, mentioning the major/minor quality of chords and whether the "VII" and "VI" are flatted or natural have a lesser importance), a Lydian cadence uses the same steps as well (I - VII - VI - V), but in a (modern) Lydian mode. (The Lydian mode is like a major scale whose fourth step is raised.^[8]) Following the tonal system convention, the Lydian cadence should be written referring to a major scale.

Hence, a Lydian cadence contains the following chords: IV - iii - ii - I. The tetrachord formed between the chords' roots has now an ascending melodic tendency (a semitone falls between the highest two steps, i.e. "IV" and "iii"). Yet, the chord progression opposes, whereas the chords' roots descend (therefore, a progression of I - ii - iii - IV would've been much more "natural". However, the song Boys Don't Cry, 1979 by The Cure features the run in both directions: I - ii - iii - IV - iii - ii - I!). Lydian cadences are plagal - the "ii" chord occurring before the tonic "I" is a subdominant (as well as the "IV").^[3]

[edit] See also

• Flamenco
• II-V-I

[edit] References

• Buciu, Dan (1989). Tonal Harmony, "Ciprian Porumbescu" Conservatory Publishing House, Bucharest, p. 127-130

[edit] External links

[edit] Free scores

• Ciaconna from Partita in D minor for solo violin by J.S. Bach
• Chaconne in G minor attributed to T.A. Vitali

[edit] Analyses and essays

• Bach's Chaconne and the Guitar, English translation of a 1930 article published by Marc Pincherle, Secretary of the French Society of Musicology in Paris