Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah
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Tāriqu l-Ḥākim, called bi Amr al-Lāh (Arabic: الحاكم بأمر الله; literally "Ruler by God's Command"), was the sixth Fatimid Caliph in Egypt, ruling from 996 to 1021.
His reign was notable for several things: the tender age - eleven - at which he succeeded his father Abū Mansūr Nizār al-ʿAzīz as Khalīfa, and the stability of the Fatimid dynasty that this successful transfer of power demonstrated; his extension of Fatimid rule to the emirate of Aleppo; his importance as a central figure in the Druze religious sect; and perhaps most importantly what many have called his "eccentricity."
According to the Journal of Near East Studies, Al-Hakim has attracted the interest of modern historians more than any other member of the Fatimid dynasty because of
His eccentric character, the inconsistencies and radical shifts in his conduct and policies, the extreme austerity of his personal life, the vindictive and sanguinary ruthlessness of his dealing with the highest officials of his government coupled with an obsession to suppress all signs of corruption and immorality in public life, his attempted annihilation of Christians and call for the systematic destruction of all Christian holy places in the middle east culminating in the destruction of the most holy Church of the Resurrection in Jerusalem, his deification by a group of extremist Isma'li missionaries who became the forerunners and founders of the Druze religion, [which] all combine to contrast his reign sharply with that of any of his predecessors and successors and indeed of any Muslim ruler. ... The question is to what extent his conduct can be explained as rationally motivated and conditioned by the circumstances rather than as the inscrutable workings of an insane mind."[1]
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[edit] Lineage
Al-Hakim was born on Thursday, the third day of Rabi' al-awwal in 375 A.H. (985). His father Caliph al-'Aziz had two consorts. One was an umm al-walad who is only known by the title al-Sayyida al-'Aziziyya or al-'Aziza (d. 385/995).[2] She was a Melkite Coptic Christian whose two brothers were appointed patriarchs of the Melkite Church by Caliph al-'Aziz.[2] Different sources say either one of her brothers or her father was sent by the al-'Aziz as an ambassador to Sicily.[2] She is credited with birthing Sitt al-Mulk (one of the most famous women in Islamic history who had a stormy relationship with her half-brother Al-Hakim).[2] Some, such as the Crusader chronicler William of Tyre, claimed that this Coptic woman was also the mother of Caliph Al-Hakim (though most historians dismiss this). William of Tyre went so far as to claim that Al-Hakim's destruction of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in 400/1009 was due to his eagerness to disprove taunts that he was a Christian born of a Christian woman.[2] By contrast the chronicler al-Musabbihi recounts that in 371/981 Al-Hakim's Muslim mother sought the aid of an imprisoned Islamic sage named Ibn al-Washa and asked him to pray for her son who had fallen ill. The sage wrote the entire Qur'an in the inner surface of a bowl and bid her wash her son out of it. When Al-Hakim recovered, she demanded the release of the sage in gratitude. Her request was granted and the sage and his associates were freed from prison.[2]
Druze sources claim that al-Hakim's mother was the daughter of 'Abd Allah, one of al-Mu'izz's sons and therefore al-'Aziz's niece.[2] Historians (such as Delia Cortese) are critical of this claim, saying "it is more likely that this woman was in fact a wife of al-Hakim, rather than his mother. It could be argued that the Druzes' emphasis on al-Hakim's descent from an endogamic union served the doctrinal purpose of reinforcing the charisma genealogically transmitted with the 'holy family', thereby enhancing the political and doctrinal status they bestow upon al-Hakim."[2]
[edit] Rise to power
In 996 CE Al-Hakim's father Caliph al-'Aziz began a trip to visit Syria (which was held by the Fatimid's only by force of arms and was under pressure from both Greeks and Turks). The Caliph feel ill at the beginning of the trip at Bilbeis and lay in sickbed for several days. He suffered from "stone with pains in the bowels." When he felt that his end was nearing he charged Qadi Muhammad b. an-Numan and General Abu Muhammad al-Hasan Ibn 'Ammar to take care of Al-Hakim who was then only eleven. He then spoke to his son. Al-Hakim later recalled the event "I found him with nothing on his body but rags and bandages. I kissed him, and he pressed me to his bosom, exclaiming: 'How I grieve for thee, beloved of my heart,' and tears flowed from his eyes. He then said: 'Go, my master, and play, for I am well.' I obeyed and began to amuse myself with sports such as are usual with boys, and soon after God took him to himself. Barjawan [the treasurer] then hastened to me, and seeing me on the top of a sycamore tree, exclaimed: 'Come down, my boy; may God protect you and us all. When I descended he placed on my head the turban adorned with jewels, kissed the ground before me, and said: 'Hail to the Commander of the faithful, with the mercy of God and his blessing.' He then led me out in that attire and showed me to all the people, who kissed the ground before me and saluted me with the title of Khalif".[3] On the following day he and his new court proceeded from Bilbays to Cairo. His fathers body proceeded him. Borne on a camel the dead Caliph’s feet protruded from the litter.[3] They arrived shortly before evening prayer and his father was buried the next evening next to the tomb of his predecessor Al-Muizz. Al Hakim was sworn in by Barjawan a "white eunuch whom al-Aziz had appointed as Ustad or 'tutor'."[3] Because it had been unclear whether he would inherit his father's position, this successful transfer of power was a demonstration of the stability of the Fatimid dynasty.
[edit] Political intrigue
Al Hakim's father had intended the eunuch Barjawan to act as regent until he was old enough to rule by himself. Ibn ‘Ammar and the Qadi Muhammad b. Nu‘man were to assist in the guardianship of the new caliph. Instead Ibn ‘Ammar (the leader of the Katama party) immediately seized the office of Wasita or chief minister from Isa b. Nestorius. At the time the office of sifara (or secretary of state) was also combined within that office. Ibn ‘Ammar then took the title of Amin ad-Dawla or "the one trusted in the empire."[3] This was the first time that the term "empire" was associated with the Fatimid state.[3]
[edit] Spouses and children
The woman who birthed Al-Hakim's heir Ali az-Zahir was the umm al-walad Amina Ruqayya, daughter to the late prince 'Abd Allah, son of al-Mu'izz. Some see her as the same as the woman in the prediction reported by al-Hamidi which held "that in 390/100 al-Hakim would choose an orphan girl of good stock brough up his father al-Aziz and that she would become the mother of his successor."[2] While the chronicler al-Maqrizi claims that Al-Hakim's step sister Sitt al-Mulk was hostile to Amina, other sources say she gave her and her child refuge when they were fleeing Al-Hakim's persecution.[2] Some sources say Al-Hakim married the jariya (young female servant) known as al-Sayyida but historians are unsure if this is just another name for Amina.[2]
Besides his son, Al-Hakim had a daughter named Sitt Misr (d. 455/1063) who was said to be a generous patroness and of noble and good character.[2]
[edit] Political rivalries and movements
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Ḥākim's most rigorous and consistent opponent was the Abbāsid Caliphate in Baghdad, which sought to halt the influence of Ismailism. This competition led to the Baghdad Manifesto of 1011, in which the Abbāsids claimed that the line Ḥākim represented did not legitimately descend from ʿAlī.
Ḥākim also struggled with the Qarmatiyya rulers of Bahrain, an island in the Persian Gulf. His diplomatic and missionary vehicle was the Ismā'īlī daʿwa, with its organizational power center in Cairo.
Ḥākim's reign was characterized by a general unrest. The Fatimid army was troubled by a rivalry between two opposing factions, the Turks and the Berbers. Tension grew between the caliph and his viziers (called wasītas), and near the end of his reign the Druze movement, a religious sect centered around Ḥākim, began to form. It was the Druze who first referred to Ḥākim as "Ruler by God's Command" and members of that sect are reported to address prayers to Ḥākim, whom they regard as "a manifestation of God in His unity." [4]
In 1004 Al-Ḥākim founded the Dar Al-Hekma "House of Knowledge", with its great public library; there philosophy and astronomy were taught in addition to purely Islamic studies of the Qurʾān and ahādīth. In 1013 he completed the mosque in Cairo begun by his father, the Masjid al-Ḥākim "Ḥākim's Mosque" whose official name is "Jame-ul-Anwar". The mosque fell to ruins and was restored to its former glory some twenty years ago by Sultan-al-Bohra, His Holiness, Dr. Syedna Mohammed Burhanuddin, after much research and expense.
[edit] Foreign affairs
Imam Ḥākim upheld diplomatic relations between the Fatimid Empire and many different countries. Skillful diplomacy was needed in establishing a friendly if not neutral basis of relations with the Byzantine Empire, which had expansionary goals in the early 11th century. Perhaps the farthest reaching diplomatic mission of Ḥākim's was to Song Dynasty era China.[5] The Fatimid Egyptian sea captain known as Domiyat traveled to a Buddhist site of pilgrimage in Shandong in the year 1008 AD.[5] It was on this mission that he sought to present to the Chinese Emperor Zhenzong of Song gifts from his ruling Caliph Al-Ḥākim.[5] This reestablished diplomatic relations between Egypt and China that had been lost during the collapse of the Tang Dynasty in 907.[5]
[edit] Interreligious relationships
According to the religious scholar Nissim Dana, Al-Hakim's relationship with other monotheistic religions can be divided into three separate stages.[6]
[edit] First period
From 996-1006 when most of the executive functions of the Khalif were performed by his advisors, the Ismaili Al-Hakim "behaved like the Shiite khalifs, who he succeeded, exhibiting a hostile attitude with respect to Sunni Muslims, whereas the attitude toward 'People of the Book' - Jews and Christians - was one of relative tolerance, in exchange for the jizya tax."[6]
In 1005 Al-Hakim ordered a public posting of curses against the first three Caliphs (Abu Bakr al-Siddiq, Umar ibn al-Khattab, Uthman Ibn Affan), and against Aisha (the wife of Muhammad) all for opposing the claim of Muhammad's cousin and son-in-law Ali who had demanded the position of Khalif for himself and his descendants. The founder of the Umayyad khalifate Muawiyah I and others among the Sahaba of Muhammad were also cursed. After only two years of posting the curses, Al-Hakim ended the practice.[6] He further forbade the use of two prayers - Salat al-Tarawih and Salat al-Duha as they were believed to have been formulated by Sunni sages.[6]
In 1005 Following the tradition of the khalifate Al-Hakim ordered that Jews and Christians wear ghuyar (distinguishing signs) - zananir (belts) and ama'im (black scarves). His attitude towards Christians grew hostile by 1003 when he ordered a recently built church destroyed and replaced by a mosque and went on to turn two other churches into mosques. He also outlawed the use of wine (nabidh) and even other intoxicating drinks not made from grapes (fuqa) to both Muslims and non-Muslims alike.[6] This produced a hardship for both Christians (who used wine in their religious rites) and Jews (who used it in their religious festivals).
During this period Al-Hakim also issued many other rigid restrictive ordinances (sijillat). These sijill included outlawing entrance to a public bath with uncovered loins, forbidding women from appearing in public with their faces uncovered, and closing many clubs and places of entertainment.[6]
[edit] Second period
From 1007-1012 "there was a notably tolerant attitude toward the Sunnis and less zeal for Ismailism, while the attitude with regard to the 'People of the Book' was hostile."[6]
[edit] Third period
From 1012-1021 Al-Hakim "became more tolerant toward the Jews and Christians and hostile toward the Sunnis. Ironically he developed a particularly hostile attitude with regard to the Muslim Shiites. It was during this period, in the year 1017, that the unique religion of the Druze began to develop as an independent religion based on the revelation (Kashf) of al-Hakim as God."[6]
[edit] Eccentric behavior
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Al-Ḥākim issued a series of seemingly arbitrary laws, including the prohibition of Mulūkhiyya, a characteristic Egyptian dish, grape eating, watercress eating as well as the prohibition of chess. He forbade the fisherman from catching any fish that had no scales and forbade people from selling or eating such fish.
According to Ibn Najjar in his book, History of Baghdad, Al-Hakim conspired to draw the attention of the Muslim world towards Egypt by planning to steal the bodies of Islamic Prophet Muhammad and his companions Abu Bakr and Umar the Great. Al-Hakim built an expensive enclosure to hold the remains of these heroes of Islam and sent Abul-Fatuh to Madina to carry out the plan. When Abul Fatuh arrived in Madinah, the residents came to know about this plot and gathered around him threateningly. Qari Zalbani recited the following verses of the Qur’an to him:[citation needed]
But if they violate their oaths after their covenant, and attack your religion with disapproval and criticism, then fight the leaders of disbelief – for surely their oaths are nothing to them – so that they may stop. Will you not fight a people who have violated their oaths and intended to expel the messenger while they did attack you first? Do you fear them? Allah has more right that you should fear Him if you are believers.-(al-Tawbah 12-13)
The residents of Madina became furious and were about to kill Abul-Fatuh and his soldiers, when he became afraid and said, ‘I shall never carry out this dirty plan even if the ruler kills me.’ In the meanwhile, a big storm swept through the area destrouying many houses, and killing many animals and people. Abul-Fatuh fled from Madina and nothing more came of Al-Hakim's plot.[citation needed]
In 1005, Al-Hakim ordered the killing of all the dogs in Egypt and discarded them in the desert. Also, he forced the inhabitants of Cairo to work at night and sleep at morning, and punished severely anyone caught violating his orders. In 1014, he ordered women not to go out at all, and ordered the shoemakers not to make any women's shoes. Al-Ḥākim killed many of his officials both high and low in rank: his tutor Abul Qasim Said ibn Said al-Fariqi, most of his viziers, judges, poets, physicians, bathhouse keepers, cooks, cousin, soldiers, Jews, Christians, intelligence gatherers, and even cut the hands of female slaves in his palace. In some cases, he did the killing himself.
In 1009, he destroyed the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem, then under Fatimid control. The church was later rebuilt by his successor with help from the Byzantine Empire. Christians and Jews were forced to wear black hats. Christians were complelled to wear huge wooden crosses, half a meter long by half a meter wide, around their necks. Jews were ordered to wear a wooden calf hanging around the neck, so as to remind them of the sin of the golden calf. Although Christians were not allowed to buy slaves, male or female, and had few other privileges, they were allowed to ride horses on the condition that they ride with wooden saddles and unornamented girths. Towards the end of his reign he became increasingly erratic and feared by his officials, soldiers and subjects alike. Muslim and Christian dignitaries alike went to his palace kissing the ground, and stood at the palace gates asking him for forgiveness, and not to listen to any rumors that were spreading. Then they raised a petition to al-Hakim and he forgave them.
[edit] Death and succession
Al-Ḥākim disappeared in 1021 on a trip on his donkey to the Muqattam Hills without any guards. The donkey was later found near a well covered with blood. It is believed that his sister Sitt al-Mulk hired assassins to kill him after she became concerned over the continuity of their dynasty and the two quarrelled over his behavior. Al-Ḥākim accused her of adultery and then she decided to act first before he punished her. The Druze do not believe he was killed but that he has been hidden away by God and will return as the Mahdi on Judgement Day.
Al-Ḥākim was succeeded by his young son Ali az-Zahir under the regency of his sister Sitt al-Mulk.
[edit] See also
[edit] References
- ^ Wilferd Madelung. Journal of Near Eastern Studies: Vol. 37, No. 3, Pg. 280.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Delia Cortese & Simonetta Calderini (2006). Women and the Fatimids in the World of Islam. Edinburgh University Press.
- ^ a b c d e De Lacy O'Leary (1923). A Short History of the Fatimid Khalifate. Routledge.
- ^ Mortimer, Edward, Faith and Power: The Politics of Islam, Vintage Books, 1982, p.49
- ^ a b c d Shen, Fuwei (1996). Cultural flow between China and the outside world. Beijing: Foreign Languages Press.
- ^ a b c d e f g h Nissim Dana (2003). The Druze in the Middle East: Their Faith, Leadership, Identity and Status. Sussex Academic Press.
[edit] External links
- Al-Hakim
- Institute of Ismaili Studies: al-Ḥākim bi-Amr Allah.
- Al-Hakim bi Amr Allah
| Preceded by al-Aziz |
Fatimid Caliph 996–1021 |
Succeeded by Ali az-Zahir |
