User talk:68.60.68.203/space/soviet
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SPUTNIK ERA - US VIEW
Development-ruskie 1st Mescherskii and Tsiolkovskii 19th century, Tsiolkovskii father of astronautics- Gov sponsored program - Germany 1930 Russia 1934 US 1942
Evolution from military[3]
Cosmic Rays Sputnik III[4]
SOVIET INTEREST IN SPACE FLIGHT began at the end of the 19th century with the works of I. V. Meshcherskii on the dynamics of bodies of variable mass and the publications of K. E. Tsiolkovskii on principles of rocket flight. [5]
rocket developments in the Soviet Union were discussed freely until 1935[6]
prewar testing Glushko, F. A. Tsander ORM (experimental rocket engine) series- Dushkin/ M. K. Tikhonravov -altitude of 6 miles in 1935--rocket plane Dushkin/S. P. Korolev 1940 [7]
1934, a Government-sponsored rocket-research program-only 5 years after Germany had embarked on its rocket program but 8 years before similar systematic Army-sponsored research began in the United States.[8]
After World War II, the Russians exploited German rocket powerplants and guidance and control equipment-increased the thrust of the V-2 rocket engine from 55,000 to 77,000 pounds...developed a super-rocket engine with a thrust of 265,000 pounds. [9]
more than an extension of previous German work; to all indications it is based on independent thinking and research. [10]
1949 upper atmosphere research-rocket program May 1949) attained an altitude of 68 miles with an instrument payload of 264 to 286 pounds [11]
official Soviet space-flight program[12]
early acceptance of the science of space flight by the Soviet hierarchy [13]
U. S. S. R. Academy of Sciences [14]
Sixth International Astronautical Congress sponsored by the International Astronautical Federation convened in Copenhagen, Demark-Academician L. I. Sedov, Chairman of the U. S. S. R. Academy of Sciences Interdepartmental Commission on Interplanetary Communications-August 2 1955 [15]
February 1956, the Russians held a conference at Leningrad State University to discuss problems of the physics of the Moon and the planets
Conference on Rockets and Satellites, held on September 11, 1956 The U. S. S. R. intends to launch a satellite [17]
September 26, TASS report These satellites will revolve around the Earth, making a complete revolution in less than one hour and a half. They will be relatively small, approximately the size of a soccer ball. [18]
close to the vest [19]
1956 the U. S. S. R. Academy of Sciences apply for membership in the International Astronautical Federation [20]
December 1956, delegation of 13 scientists attended the First International Congress on Rockets and Guided Missiles in Paris There the Russians presented two papers which revealed the prodigality of their rocket-test program: In the Soviet experimental technique, the measuring instruments are not carried in the rocket itself but in automatically jettisoned containers, the results being recorded on film and the containers recovered by parachute. [21]
British Society of Happy Dogs Tass dispatch Moscow, June 18, 1957
On June 1, 1957, Pravda quoted Nesmeyanov:soon, literally within the next months, our planet Earth will acquire another satellite ... The technical difficulties that stood in the way of the solution of this grandiose task have been overcome by our scientists. The apparatus by means of which this extremely bold experiment can be realized has already been created [23]
Ignoring the Russians
page 1 in the astronomical journals Astronomicheskii Tsirkulyar, May 18, 1957, and Astronomicheskii Zhurnal, May-June, 1957 [24]
Two articles appeared in the June 1957, issue of the Russian amateur-radio magazine, Radio "Artificial Earth Satellite - Information for Radio Amateurs," gave a fairly comprehensive description not only of a satellite's orbit and how the subsequent appearances of a satellite can be predicted, but also of the satellite's radio transmitters, how the 20- and 40-megacycle frequency signals are to be used, and what information about the upper atmosphere can be derived from them. [25]
August 27, 1957, TASS report in Pravda
successful tests of an intercontinental ballistic rocket and also explosions of nuclear and thermonuclear weapons have been carried out in conformity with the plan of scientific research work in the U. S. S. R.
September 17,1957, the 100th anniversary of the birth of E. E. Tsiolkovskii, the founder of the science of astronautics. in Kaluga, a small town approximately 100 miles southwest of Moscow, where Tsiolkovskii had spent the greater part of his life. the Soviets erect a monument depicting Tsiolkovskii in flowing cape, looking into the sky, and standing on a pedestal in front of a long slender rocket poised in a vertical takeoff position.
October 4,1957, Sputnik I was established in its orbit
[edit] References
- ^ LETTER OF SUBMITTAL DECEMBER 29, 1958 A real need has been felt for an authoritative study in lay terms which would set forth clearly the present and definitely foreseeable state of the art of space flight. The committee, after careful consideration of alternatives, requested The RAND Corporation of Santa Monica, Calif., to undertake such a study...The report which follows, tailored to the needs of the Congress and the public, represents the most comprehensive unclassified study on the subject now available. The report is confined to technical and scientific analysis, avoiding expressions of opinion on policy and administrative matters "SPACE HANDBOOK: ASTRONAUTICS AND ITS APPLICATIONS" (1958-12-28). STAFF REPORT OF THE SELECT COMMITTEE ON ASTRONAUTICS AND SPACE EXPLORATION 86th Congress, 1st Session (House Document No. 86): Preface.
- ^ The principal early work in the technological field of space flight was done in Russia, Germany, and the United States. The chief United States effort was that of Goddard. The early German work was done by H. Oberth, beginning in the 1920's. Russian efforts commenced at a substantially earlier date, giving them a clear and valid claim to a "first." Russian activity began with the work of Mescherskii and Tsiolkovskii near the end of the 19th century.1 2 Tsiolkovskii is generally recognized as the father of astronautics. Considerable work, both theoretical and experimental, was accomplished in the U. S. S. R. in the 1920's and 1930's.
Serious and substantial Government-sponsored rocket-research programs were established in Germany in about 1930, in the Soviet Union sometime in or before 1934, and in the United States in 1942.- Krieger, F. J., A Casebook on Soviet Astronautics, The RAND Corp., Research Memorandum RM-1760, June 21, 1956; A Casebook on Soviet Astronautics-Part II, RM-1922, June 21, 1957
- Krieger, F J., Behind the Sputniks: A Survey of Soviet Space Science, Public Affairs Press, Washington, D. C., 1958
- ^ None, however, will come from the ballistic-missile programs directly. All require additional work of a very substantial nature. With diligence and reasonable luck, the overall rocket machinery necessary to attempt any of these flights could be available in a few years-probably less than five. Rocket capabilities of roughly the same order can reasonably be assigned to the U. S. S. R. in this period also-perhaps more.1
- It is not at all likely that the 3,000 pounds of sputnik III is the limit of currently active Soviet rockets. Since the first Soviet ICBM firing was claimed in August 1957, it is rather clear that really extensive testing could not have taken place by the time Sputnik III was put into final assembly. It should be noted in this connection that various development versions of Atlas have moved progressively up the range scale as testing has proceeded
- ^ Explorer IV data indicate that radiation intensity increases by a factor of several thousand between 180 and 975 miles, with a rapid rise beginning at about 240 miles. The level of radiation may reach as much as 10 roentgens per hour -enough to deliver an average lethal dose in 2 days to an unshielded human being.
Results from Sputnik III, which did not travel quite so far out in space but went to higher northern and southern latitudes, seem roughly compatible with the Explorer results. Tentative data from Pioneer indicate a rapid decay of radiation intensity with increasing distance beyond about 17,000 miles from the Earth. "SPACE HANDBOOK: ASTRONAUTICS AND ITS APPLICATIONS" (1958-12-28). STAFF REPORT OF THE SELECT COMMITTEE ON ASTRONAUTICS AND SPACE EXPLORATION 86th Congress, 1st Session (House Document No. 86): p.16. - ^ Tsiolkovskii, the father of (and to the Soviets, the patron saint of) the science of astronautics, has been fairly well represented by rocket historians in Western literature. Not so, however, his contemporaries - F. A. Tsander, who developed the idea of utilizing as fuel the metallic structural rocket ship components which were no longer necessary and who in 1932 built and successfully tested a rocket motor operating on kerosene and liquid oxygen; Yu. V. Kondratyuk, who proposed the use of ozone as an oxidant and developed the idea of aerodynamically braking a rocket returning from a voyage in space; N. A. Rynin, who during the period 1928-32 published a monumental 9-volume treatise on astronautics; Ya. I. Perel'man, the great popularizer of astronautics- and I. P. Fortikov, the organizer. "SPACE HANDBOOK: ASTRONAUTICS AND ITS APPLICATIONS" (1958-12-28). STAFF REPORT OF THE SELECT COMMITTEE ON ASTRONAUTICS AND SPACE EXPLORATION 86th Congress, 1st Session (House Document No. 86): p.218.
- ^ Until the door was shut on the publication of original material in 1935, rocket developments in the Soviet Union, especially those connected with the exploration of the stratosphere, were discussed quite freely. As early as 1929, an organization known as GIRD (after the initials of the Russian words for "group studying reactive motion") was formed by a number of scientists and engineers whose primary interest was in rocket engines and propellants. The papers written by various members of this organization contain a wealth of evidence of native competence in the various aspects of rocketry and space flights and clearly indicate that the Russians possessed a relatively high degree of technical sophistication more than two decades ago.1 The GIRD publications included contributions by I. A. Merkulov, Yu. A. Pobedonostsev, and M. K. Tikhonravov, who are still very active in the field of rocket propulsion and space flight.
- E. g., Proceedings of the All-Union Conference on the Study of the Stratosphere, March 31-April 6,. 1934, U. S. S. R. Academy of Sciences, 1935. and collections of papers titled "Rocket Technology" and "Jet Propulsion," Union of Scientific Technical Publishing Houses, 1935, 1936
- ^ By 1929, V. P. Glushko, now a corresponding member of the U. S. S. R. Academy of Sciences, was already designing rocket engines, and from 1931 to 1932 he conducted test-stand firings with gasoline, benzene, and toluene as fuels, and with liquid oxygen, nitrogen tetroxide, and nitric acid as oxidants. The only liquid-propellant rocket engines mentioned by code designation in the Russian literature are the OR-2 engine, designed by F. A. Tsander, which in 1933 developed a thrust of 110-pounds operating on gasoline and liquid oxygen; the ORM (experimental rocket engine) series, designed by Glushko, of which the ORM-52 in 1933 developed a thrust of 660 pounds operating on kerosene and nitric acid; and the aircraft-thrust-augmentation rocket engines - RD-1, RD-2, and RD-3 which developed thrusts of 660, 1,320, and 1,980 Pounds, respectively (194146). L. S. Dushkin designed an engine that propelled a meteorological rocket designed by M. K. Tikhonravov to an altitude of 6 miles in 1935. Dushkin later designed an engine that developed a thrust of 330 pounds for a rocket plane (glider) built under the direction of S. P. Korolev and successfully flight-tested in 1940. "SPACE HANDBOOK: ASTRONAUTICS AND ITS APPLICATIONS" (1958-12-28). STAFF REPORT OF THE SELECT COMMITTEE ON ASTRONAUTICS AND SPACE EXPLORATION 86th Congress, 1st Session (House Document No. 86): p.218.
- ^ Stalin's personal interest in the development of long-range, rocket-propelled guided missiles is discussed in the book Stalin Means War by Col. G. A. Tokaev, formerly chief of the aerodynamics laboratory of the Moscow Military Air Academy, who defected from the Soviet Zone of Germany to Great Britain in 1948. "SPACE HANDBOOK: ASTRONAUTICS AND ITS APPLICATIONS" (1958-12-28). STAFF REPORT OF THE SELECT COMMITTEE ON ASTRONAUTICS AND SPACE EXPLORATION 86th Congress, 1st Session (House Document No. 86): p.219.
- ^ (It is interesting to note that, although most of the Germans were repatriated in 1952, a group of electronic experts was not repatriated until 1958.) The Soviets not only increased the thrust of the V-2 rocket engine from 55,000 to 77,000 pounds by increasing the propellant flow rate1 - thereby extending the range of the missile from 200 to 700 miles-but also developed a super-rocket engine with a thrust of 265,000 pounds. They were also interested in designing a rocket engine with a thrust of 551,000 pounds, probably as an improvement on the powerplant the Germans had envisioned for their A-10 rocket. Events since August 1957 seem to indicate that the German A-9/10 project reached fruition in the Soviet ICBM.
- A similar development in this country led to the 75,000-Pound-thrust rocket engine for the Redstone missile.
- ^ These developments indicate that the Russian effort has been more than an extension of previous German work; to all indications it is based on independent thinking and research. This is not surprising, since Russia has its share of exceptionally capable technical men such as Semenov (the recent Nobel prizewinner in chemistry) and Zel'dovich, Khristianovich, and Sedov - to mention but a few in the fields of combustion theory and fluid dynamics. "SPACE HANDBOOK: ASTRONAUTICS AND ITS APPLICATIONS" (1958-12-28). STAFF REPORT OF THE SELECT COMMITTEE ON ASTRONAUTICS AND SPACE EXPLORATION 86th Congress, 1st Session (House Document No. 86): p.219.
- ^ By 1949 the Soviets had embarked on an upper atmosphere research-rocket program that involved the recovery by parachute, first of test-instrument containers and later of experimental animals. Papers dealing with this program were presented by S. M. Poloskov and B. A. Mirtov and by A. V. Pokrovskii in Paris in December 1956. According to a Tass report dated March 27,1958, the single-stage rocket initially used (in May 1949) attained an altitude of 68 miles with an instrument payload of 264 to 286 pounds. With improved techniques, larger payloads were sent to higher altitudes. Thus, in May 1957, a single-stage geophysical rocket raised an instrument payload of 4,840 pounds to an altitude of 131 miles, while on February 21,1958, an improved single-stage geophysical rocket raised an instrument payload of 3,340 pounds to a record altitude of 293 miles. In each case the payload was recovered by parachute. On August 27,1958, a single-stage geophysical rocket launched in the Soviet Union reached an altitude of 279 miles with a payload of 3,720 pounds. Besides instruments for studying the upper atmosphere, the rocket carried two dogs in a special pressurized capsule. Both instruments and dogs were successfully recovered. "SPACE HANDBOOK: ASTRONAUTICS AND ITS APPLICATIONS" (1958-12-28). STAFF REPORT OF THE SELECT COMMITTEE ON ASTRONAUTICS AND SPACE EXPLORATION 86th Congress, 1st Session (House Document No. 86): p.219.
- ^ Academician A. N. Nesmeyanov in his address to the World Peace Council in Vienna on November 27, 1953... said: "Science has reached a state when it is feasible to send a stratoplane to the Moon, to create an artificial satellite of the Earth." 1 As president of the U. S. S. R. Academy of Sciences, Nesmeyanov was, of course, familiar with all aspects of Soviet scientific progress; his statement clearly implied that Russian progress in rocket propulsion as of 1953 had made feasible such feats as launching an Earth satellite and flying to the Moon
- Pravda, November 28, 1953
- ^ It is not without significance that volume 27 of Bol'shaya Sovetskaya Entsiklopediya (Large Soviet Encyclopedia), published in June 1954, contained an article entitled "Interplanetary Communications" by M. K. Tikhonravov. 1 As of the end of 1957 there was no corresponding entry in any of the Western encyclopedias. Interestingly, the New York Times began to index articles on space ships and space flight under the term "Astronautics" only after the White House announced on July 29, 1955, that the United States intended to launch an Earth satellite.
- In Russian the term "interplanetary communications" is synonymous with "astronautics" and "space fight."
- ^ on September 24, 1954, the Presidium of the U. S. S. R. Academy of Sciences established the K. E. Tsiolkovskii Gold Medal for outstanding work in the field of interplanetary communications, to be awarded every 3 years beginning with 1957. At about the same time, the Presidium established the permanent Interdepartmental Commission on Interplanetary Communications to "coordinate and direct all work concerned with solving the problem of mastering cosmic space." Academician L. I. Sedov, a topnotch hydrodynamicist, was appointed chairman, and M. K. Tikhonravov-who designed and successfully launched liquid-propellant atmospheric research rockets in 1934-was appointed vice chairman.
in addition to the ICIC, an Astronautics Section was organized early in 1954 in Moscow at the V. P. Chkalov Central Aeroclub of the U. S. S. R. Its goal was "to facilitate the realization of cosmic flights for peaceful purposes." Its charter members included Chairman N. A. Varvarov, Prof. V. V. Dobronravov, Design Engineer I. A. Merkulov, Stalin Prize Laureate A. D. Seryapin, Prof. K. P. Stanyukovich, Yu. S. Khlebtsevich, and International Astronautics Prize Winner, A. A. Shternfel'd. "SPACE HANDBOOK: ASTRONAUTICS AND ITS APPLICATIONS" (1958-12-28). STAFF REPORT OF THE SELECT COMMITTEE ON ASTRONAUTICS AND SPACE EXPLORATION 86th Congress, 1st Session (House Document No. 86): p.220. - ^ "recently in the U. S. S. R. much consideration has been given to research problems connected with the realization of interplanetary communications, particularly the problems of creating an artificial Earth satellite... In my opinion, it will be possible to launch an artificial Earth satellite within the next 2 years, and there is a technological possibility of creating artificial satellites of various sizes and weights. From a technical point of view, it is possible to create a satellite of larger dimensions than that reported in the newspapers which we had the opportunity of scanning today. The realization of the Soviet project can be expected in the comparatively near future. I won't take it upon myself to name the date more precisely." "SPACE HANDBOOK: ASTRONAUTICS AND ITS APPLICATIONS" (1958-12-28). STAFF REPORT OF THE SELECT COMMITTEE ON ASTRONAUTICS AND SPACE EXPLORATION 86th Congress, 1st Session (House Document No. 86): p.221.
- ^ in February 1956, the Russians held a conference at Leningrad State University to discuss problems of the physics of the Moon and the planets. More than 50 scientists participated. The two principal topics for discussion were (1) the questions of planetology connected with the problems of astronautics and, primarily, the question of the state of the Moon's surface, and (2) the exchange of opinions and plans for observations of the coming great opposition of Mars in September 1956. "SPACE HANDBOOK: ASTRONAUTICS AND ITS APPLICATIONS" (1958-12-28). STAFF REPORT OF THE SELECT COMMITTEE ON ASTRONAUTICS AND SPACE EXPLORATION 86th Congress, 1st Session (House Document No. 86): p.221.
- ^ (1) In addition to the U. S. S. R. program already presented to the Barcelona meeting the rocket-satellite program will be presented at a later time.
(2) The U. S. S. R. intends to launch a satellite by means of which measurements of atmospheric pressure and temperature, as well as observations of cosmic rays, micrometeorites, the geomagnetic field and solar radiation will be conducted. The preparations for launching the satellite are presently being made.
(3) Meteorological observations at high altitudes will be conducted by means of rockets.
(4) Since the question of U. S. S. R. participation in the IGY rocket-satellite observations was decided quite recently the detailed program of these investigations is not yet elaborated.
"SPACE HANDBOOK: ASTRONAUTICS AND ITS APPLICATIONS" (1958-12-28). STAFF REPORT OF THE SELECT COMMITTEE ON ASTRONAUTICS AND SPACE EXPLORATION 86th Congress, 1st Session (House Document No. 86): p.222. - ^ on September 26, a TASS report, captioned "Preparation for the International Geophysical Year" and bearing no dateline, appeared on page 4 of Krasnaya Zvezda (Red Star). The report quoted Academician Bardin as saying that-
- The Soviet delegation's statement that work is being conducted in the U. S. S. R., just as in the United States of America on preparations for upper atmosphere research by means of rockets and artificial satellites evoked great interest among the participants of the session. These satellites will revolve around the Earth, making a complete revolution in less than one hour and a half. They will be relatively small, approximately the size of a [soccer] football.They will weigh about 9 kilograms. Now scientists are making more precise a number of conditions for successfully launching the satellites
- ^ an American IGY scientist (according to an Associated Press dispatch datelined Washington, October 2, 1957) said that Russian delegates had told him repeatedly that they consider it-
- bad taste to make announcements in advance. Our policy is not to release any details until we have experimental results.
- ^ The list of 27 members of the Commission is a very impressive one. It includes eight academicians, some of Russia's-and the world's- top scientists. There is no question of the stature in world science of such men as P. L. Kapitsa, the famed physicist, N. N. Bogolyubov, the mathematical genius who is said to be the Russian counterpart of the late John von Neumann, V. A. Ambartsumyan, the noted Armenian astrophysicist, and others. Although most of the members of the Commission are pedagogy that is, connected with some institute of higher learning, a number of them wear several hats, including military hats. Academician A. A. Blagonravov, for example, is a lieutenant general of artillery and is a specialist in automatic weapons. G. I. Pokrovskii is a major general of technical services and an explosives expert. V. F. Bolkhovitinov holds the rank of major general and is a professor of aeronautical engineering at the Military Air Academy. Yu. A. Pobedonostsev is a colonel, a professor of aerodynamics at Moscow State University and a specialist in gas dynamics. "SPACE HANDBOOK: ASTRONAUTICS AND ITS APPLICATIONS" (1958-12-28). STAFF REPORT OF THE SELECT COMMITTEE ON ASTRONAUTICS AND SPACE EXPLORATION 86th Congress, 1st Session (House Document No. 86): p.223.
- ^ The papers were entitled "Study of the Upper Atmosphere by Means of Rockets at the U. S. S. R. Academy of Sciences, ' by S. M. Poloskov and B. A. Mirtov, and "Study of the Vital Activity of Animals During Rocket Flights Into the Upper Atmosphere," by A. V. Pokrovskii, director of the U. S. S. R. Institute of Experimental Aeromedicine.
The paper by Poloskov and Mirtov describes an instrument container, 6.5 feet long and 15.75 inches in diameter, used for upper-atmosphere research.
Pokrovskii's paper describes a catapultable chassis used in studying the behavior of dogs during round-trip flights to altitudes of 68 miles. The dog is secured in a hermetically sealed space suit with a removable plastic helmet and is provided with a 2-hour supply of oxygen. The chassis is equipped with radio transmitter, oscillograph, thermometers, sphygmometer, camera, and parachute. Two such chassis are fitted in the rocket nose section, which separates from the body of the rocket at the apex of the trajectory. One chassis separates from the nose section at a height of 50 to 56 miles and parachutes to the ground from a height of 46 to 53 miles. The other chassis separates at a height of 28 to 31 miles and falls freely to a height of 2 to 2.5 miles before parachuting to the ground.- Probably the most comprehensive review was given by Academician Blagonravov himself in an article entitled reinvestigation of the Upper Layers of the Atmosphere by Means of High-Altitude Rockets," which appeared in Vestnik Akademii Nauk S. S. S. R. in June 1957. Besides mentioning by name the key personnel in the program, Blagonravov stated that cosmic-ray investigations by means of rockets were initiated in the Soviet Union in 1947, that atmospheric composition studies to altitudes of 60 miles began in 1949, and that systematic studies of the atmosphere-including the use of dogs-were conducted from 1951 to 1956.
- ^ At a press conference held by the State Committee for Cultural Relations with Foreign Countries on June 18, the correspondents were shown living travelers into extraterrestrial space-three dogs who were sent up in rockets to a height of 100 kilometers and more. Two of them have made two flights each and are in good health. All the flights were filmed. It was found that the animals behaved normally when flying to this height at a speed of 1,170 meters per second. Alexei Pokrovskii, a member of the Soviet Committee for the International Geophysical Year, said, "I would like the British correspondents to inform the British Society of Happy Dogs about this because the society has protested to the Soviet Union against such experiments." "SPACE HANDBOOK: ASTRONAUTICS AND ITS APPLICATIONS" (1958-12-28). STAFF REPORT OF THE SELECT COMMITTEE ON ASTRONAUTICS AND SPACE EXPLORATION 86th Congress, 1st Session (House Document No. 86): p.225.
- ^ As a result of many years of work by Soviet scientists and engineers to the present time, rockets and all the necessary equipment and apparatus have been created by means of which the problem of an artificial Earth satellite for scientific research purposes can be solved.
A week later, Nesmeyanov said that-
soon, literally within the next months, our planet Earth will acquire another satellite ... The technical difficulties that stood in the way of the solution of this grandiose task have been overcome by our scientists. The apparatus by means of which this extremely bold experiment can be realized has already been created.1- Komsomolskaya Pravda, June 9, 1957
- ^ "On the Observation of the Artificial Satellite," by A. A. Mikhailov, Chairman of the Astronomical Council of the U. S. S. R. Academy of Sciences, appeared on page 1 in the astronomical journals Astronomicheskii Tsirkulyar, May 18, 1957, and Astronomicheskii Zhurnal, May-June, 1957. After a brief description of what observers were to expect as the satellite passed overhead, 7 the announcement concluded with the following statements:
The Astronomical Council of the U. S. S. R. Academy of Sciences requests all astronomical organizations, all astronomers of the Soviet Union, and all members of the All-Union Astronomical and Geodetic Society to participate actively in preparations for the visual observations of artificial satellites.
Instructions and special apparatus for observation can be obtained through the Astronomical Council. "SPACE HANDBOOK: ASTRONAUTICS AND ITS APPLICATIONS" (1958-12-28). STAFF REPORT OF THE SELECT COMMITTEE ON ASTRONAUTICS AND SPACE EXPLORATION 86th Congress, 1st Session (House Document No. 86): p.225.
- ^ "Artificial Earth Satellite - Information for Radio Amateurs," by V. Vakhnin, and "Observations of the Radio Signals From the Artificial Earth Satellite and Their Scientific Importance," by A. Kazantsev, gave a fairly comprehensive description not only of a satellite's orbit and how the subsequent appearances of a satellite can be predicted, but also of the satellite's radio transmitters, how the 20- and 40-megacycle frequency signals are to be used, and what information about the upper atmosphere can be derived from them.1
The July and August issues of Radio carried articles on how to build a recommended short-wave-radio receiver and a direction- finding attachment for tracking the Soviet sputniks. Moreover, to inform the Russian radio amateurs about developments in the United States, the July issue of the magazine carried an article based on material taken from the American amateur-radio magazine QST describing the Minitrack II system which would permit radio amateurs to track American satellites with comparatively inexpensive equipment. This item was followed immediately by a notice in bold-face type to Soviet radio amateurs to make preparations for tracking the Russian scientific earth satellites and contained detailed instructions on how to submit data on the signals received and recorded to Moskva-Sputnik for reduction and analysis by the Institute of Radio Engineering and Electronics of the U. S. S. R. Academy of Sciences.- Radio is an organ of the U. S. S. R. Ministry of Communication and of DOSAAF (the All-Union Volunteer Society for the Promotion of the Army, Aviation, and Navy) and corresponds to the American amateur-radio magazine, QST, published by the American Radio Relay League.
