Willingness to communicate
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In second language acquisition, willingness to communicate (WTC) refers to the idea that language students (language learners) who are willing to communicate in the second language (L2) actually look for chances to communicate; and furthermore, these learners actually do communicate in the L2. Therefore, "the ultimate goal of the learning process should be to engender in language education students" the willingness to communicate (MacIntyre, Clément, Dörnyei & Noels:1998).
Language programs that do not instill this are therefore failed programs.
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[edit] Pyramid model
A pyramid model has been established that describes learners' use of the L2. As the learner moves up the pyramid, the learner has more control over the act of communicating in the target language.
The model, with six layers, has a total of twelve constructs. The layers, from top to bottom, are:
- communication behaviour (I)
- behavioural intention (II)
- situated antecedents (III)
- motivational propensities (IV)
- affective-cognitive context (V)
- social and individual context (VI)
Layers VI, V, and IV are considered to be lasting influences. At layers III, II and I, the influences on actual L2 use are at a given time.
The twelve constructs, from top to bottom, are:
- use (layer I)
- willingness to communicate (II)
- desire to communicate with a specific person (III)
- state of communicating self-confidence (III)
- interpersonal motivation (IV)
- intergroup motivation (IV)
- self-confidence (IV)
- intergroup attitudes (V)
- social situation (V)
- competence (V)
- intergroup climate (VI)
- personality (VI)
[edit] WTC in Japanese contexts
The Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (Japan) or MEXT, as Yashima (2002) noted, has, for a number of years, begun to place a greater emphasis on communication in the L2. Prior to this, English education in Japanese classrooms was, and still is for many, considered a knowledge-based subject, like mathematics and sciences. Grammar and vocabulary have been learnt to solve increasingly complex linguistic puzzles — entrance exams — which had significant consequences for the test takers, and because they are still used today, still do.
According to MEXT guidelines, however, the objectives for the study of foreign languages is to develop practical communication abilities, deepen the understanding of foreign cultures and foster positive attitudes toward communicating in an L2. Despite the stated goals and objectives in MEXT's guidelines, Fujita (2002) cautioned, however, that as yet there is no clear “consensus as to the purpose of learning English in Japan” (p. 19).
Yashima asked with whom and for what purposes Japanese will communicate in their L2. "For many learners, English symbolizes the world around Japan, something that connects them to foreign countries and foreigners […], with whom they can communicate by using English" (p. 57). Yashima called this desire by Japanese to learn English to communicate with the world around them international posture: a general attitude towards the international community that "influences motivation [in learning an L2], which, in turn, predicts proficiency and L2 communication confidence" (Yashima, 2002, p. 63).
International posture, along with L2 confidence in communication, was also seen as directly influencing WTC. While proficiency was seen as influencing confidence in L2 communication, the path was not significant. In the Japanese context, this implies that students do have the abilities to perform in the L2, yet lack confidence in communicating in the L2.
Yashima (2002) concluded with a call that "EFL lessons should be designed to enhance students’ interest in different cultures and international affairs and activities, as well as to reduce anxiety and build confidence in communication" (p. 63).
[edit] Difference between L1 and L2 WTC
MacIntyre, Clément, Dörnyei & Noels (1998) noted that WTC in first language (L1) does not necessarily transfer to the L2. “It is highly unlikely that WTC in the second language (L2) is a simple manifestation of WTC in the L1” (p. 546).
Hashimoto (2002) investigated affective variables as predictors of use of the L2 in the L2 classroom. In her study of advanced-level (500+ on the TOEFL) Japanese students studying at the University of Hawai'i at Manoa, the path between perceived competence and greater frequency of use of the L2 was not significant. She suggested that less able students would be willing to speak in class if they perceived themselves as competent, but more able students would not.
[edit] Engendering WTC
In Japanese contexts, engendering WTC in students could involve the following. The list is incomplete.
- Enable students' interest in foreign affairs and foreign cultures to grow.
- Remove students' anxiety and build their confidence in using the L2.
- Build on students' knowledge.
- Before students are asked to complete tasks in a large-group setting, have them perform the task in pairs.
- Use authentic materials in the classroom.
- Use a variety of activities and tasks.
[edit] See also
[edit] References
- Fujita, M. (2002). Second Language English Attrition of Japanese Bilingual Children. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Temple University, Tokyo, Japan.
- Hashimoto, Y. (2002). Motivation and Willingness to Communicate as Predictors of Reported L2 Use: the Japanese ESL Context. Second Language Studies, 20 (2), Spring 2002, pp. 29-70.
- MacIntyre, P.D., Clément, R., Dörnyei, Z., & Noels, K.A. (1998). Conceptualizing willingness to communicate in a L2: A situational model of L2 confidence and affiliation. The Modern Language Journal, 82 (4), 545-562.
- Yashima, T. (2002). Willingness to Communicate in a Second Language: The Japanese EFL Context. The Modern Language Journal, 86 (1), 54-66.
