Weapon dance

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The weapon dance employs weapons—or stylized versions of weapons—traditionally used in combat in order to simulate, recall, or reenact combat or the moves of combat in the form of dance, usually for some ceremonial purpose. Such dancing is quite common to folk ritual in many parts of the world. Weapon dancing is certainly ancient; among the earliest historical references we have are those that refer to the pyrhhic, a weapon dance in ancient Sparta, in which the dance was used as a kind of ritual training for battle.^[1]

There are virtually no parts of the world left where the weapon dance is directly connected with imminent or recent combat. This is especially true of Europe, the nation states of which have long since transcended the tribalism that gave rise to such folk dances. It is, however, also true of parts of the world where tribal traditions have succumbed only quite recently to colonialism and the forces of globalism. Thus, the dances that one sees today are part of general movements to preserve and rejuvenate tribal or local traditions—a backlash, if you will, against the levelling forces of globalism. Some of these movements are quite strong now, such as those among native North American tribes and the aboriginal peoples of Australia.

Beyond the scope of this article are the many examples around the world of ritual combat, which, though not dance, has its anthropologically fascinating aspects of purification, getting rid of hostile or dangerous spirits, acting as a surrogate for real battle and even, in ancient times, of being a kind of human sacrifice. Some writers have suggested that even Roman gladiatorial combat was a kind of human sacrifice, a ritual weapon display with the winner often going free.^[2]

Also beyond the scope of this article is the dance of the hunt, of which there are many examples. A very early reference to a weapon dance of the hunt comes in the form of a rock engraving at Çatal Höyük, the large neolithic settlement in south-central Anatolia. It depicts a hunting ritual involving dancers holding their weapons; one figure has a bow in each hand, two perform artistic leaps and another holds a horn-shaped stick and is striking a frame drum.^[3]

Contents 1 Function of the weapon dance 2 Examples 2.1 Europe 2.2 Asia 2.3 Middle East and Asia Minor 2.4 Africa 2.5 Australia and Polynesia 2.6 North and Central America 2.7 South America 3 Notes and references 4 Additional reading 5 External links

[edit] Function of the weapon dance

In the modern world, dance has come to be regarded as something one does for recreation, thus distancing dance from the important place it has held in many human cultures throughout history—that is, a method of expression, preservation and transmission of the culture and history of a people. Many of the activities that humans have engaged in for millennia—religion and courtship, for example—have traditionally found expression in various kinds of dance. Another activity—combat—has obviously been central to the life of most human cultures; thus, one expects to find dances that celebrate skill in the use of weapons. Indeed, there is a wide range of such weapon dances in the world; they vary from general displays of prowess in the use of weapons to reenactments of real episodes of combat specific to a given culture.

[edit] Examples

[edit] Europe

See also: Scottish highland dance and sword dance

Sword dancing exists in some parts of Europe. The weapon may be used to act out mock combat during the dance, or may be incorporated as an element of the dance itself, intertwining with other swords. In some places, sticks are used instead of swords. Iberian stick dances (paulitos, paloteos, ball de bastons) display two opposite rows of dancers. A common sword dance in Europe is the moresca in Spain, in which the dance recalls the strife between Christians and Muslims in that country from the 12th-15th century.^[4]

In Macedonia and Northern Italy, weapon dances may be used to exorcise evil spirits before a wedding. Sabre dancing exists in the Balkans; the most famous of these is from Albania, where two male rivals simulate a duel over a woman. Northern-Portuguese jogo do pau involves two rivals with long sticks. Other weapons, such as axes (or wooden versions thereof) may be used in some places. In parts of Europe, there are lance dances, dagger dances, and even rifle dances.^[4]

In the Scottish Highlands, there are dances that used the Lochaber axe, the broadsword, targe & dirk and the flail. The Highland Dirk Dance, resembles a combative dance similar to those of Indonesian Penjak Silat, which has the performer executing knife techniques combined with wrestling style kicks, trips and sweeps.^[4]

Hilt-and-point sword dances exist in many places in Europe. In this kind of dance the swords interlock to form a “rose,” or “lock,” that is placed around the neck of a participant to simulate decapitation. As well, crossed-sword dances are common in Europe. Typically, dancers execute complicated patterns of steps over and between the swords. In some variations, clay pipes may replace the swords. Many European sword dances were appropriated by trade guilds, with tools replacing the swords. In Turkey and Greece there exists a butchers’ dance called the hassapikos. It is now a social dance, but goes back to a battle mime in the Middle Ages performed with swords and performed by members of by the butchers' guild. Also in Turkey are the so-called “guerrilla dances”, performed by dances arranged in a circle who make swishing and whiffling sounds with their swords (possibly to clear the area of evil spirits), followed by mock combat.

Chain-sword dance is a group dance in which the dancers first use a sword or other implement (stick, stave, etc.) to link themselves in a chain. In the Hungarian tradition, the Erdőbénye cooper dance represents this form of dance. A dance similar to the moresca exists on the island of Korčula, recalling combat between Christians and Muslims. Historically, the Hungarin heyduck dance was a soldiers' dance that involved vituoso whirling of weapons and free-form compositions with battle practice motifs. Such dances also appear in Gypsy, Slovak, Ruthenian, and Transylvanian folklore. In many of these areas, the so-called "stick dancing" of shepherds is a reenactment of combat with real weapons.^[5]

In a few isolated sections of Europe, a rather savage male combat dance survives. In the villages of the Transylvania Alps and Carpathian mountains, before Twelfth Night and Whitsunday, nine men from nine villages assemble for the Joc de Caluşari, a rite of initiation. The men engage in fierce battle with sticks , which formerly was bloody and sometimes fatal.^[6]

In the Basque province of Gipuzkoa in Spain, the Okravario Dantza is performed—a sword dance in which a participant dances atop a grid of crossed swords held aloft. In Tolosa, on Midsummer Day, the Bordon-Dantza is performed; some point its origins to the border fights in the Middle Ages, when the Castillian troops from Gipuzkoa won an important victory over the troops from Navarre at the Battle of Beotibar. Sticks simulate some weapons, and halberds--a combination of a spear and a battle-axe--are also used.^[7]

Some traditional Cossack dancing employs swords and whips and, thus, qualifies as weapons dancing.

[edit] Asia

Baris is a traditional dance of Bali, in which a solo dancer depicts the feelings of a young warrior prior to battle. Originally, Baris was performed as a religious ritual. The dancer may bear a kris, a spear, a bow, or other weapons, depending on the variant performed. The word "Baris" literally means "line" or "file", and referred to the line of soldiers who served the rajas of Bali. The dance is usually performed by men in a group with as few as four dancers and as many as sixty. The ritualistic functon of the dance is to show physical maturity by demonstrating military skills, particularly the use of weapons.^[8]

The development of art dance, in general, in China reached its peak during the Tang dynasty and then was largely integrated into Chinese Opera practice. Tribal weapon dancing, thus, does not play a part in this tradition. It may, however, be present among the original aboriginal tribes on Taiwan (The Republic of China).^[9]

The Dayak people of Borneo are renowned for their solo sword dances, which show the skill of a young man using a sharp manda. Also on the island of Borneo one finds the Lotud, an indigenous ethnic group residing in Sabah. The Lotud are well known for their very colourful costumes and their dances, one of which is the Bakanjar, a war-like dance with a man holding a sword and a shield, originally performed to portray the sword fight and heoric exploits of the headhunting days.

Among the traditional weapon dances of India is the Shad Sukmynsiem, performed in the north-eastern state of Meghalaya. Both Christians and Hindus may take part as long as they belong to Khasi community. Young lads clad in colourful silk dhotis dance around with a sword or spear in one hand and a plume in the other. The move in a protective circle around an inner circle of young maidens.^[10] A popular dance in Mizoram in the north-east corner of India is Sawlakin, a word that "means spirit of the slain." Traditionally, the dance was led by the warrior who had hunted a big game or killed a man. He would wear his best clothes and a plume of red feather. He would wield a gun or dao and a shield. He would be followed by other dancers in a row, who would also carry weapons, or cymbals or gongs.^[11]

The Pashtuns of Afghanistan practice a wide range of weapon dances, including the Khattak Wal Atanrh ( named after the Khattak tribe) and the Mahsood Wal Atanrh (which, in modern times, involves the juggling of loaded rifles). A sub-type of the Khattak Wal Atanrh known as the Braghoni involves the use of up to three swords and requires great skill to successfully execute.^[12]

[edit] Middle East and Asia Minor

There are a number of Arab weapon dances, including the Razha. It was originally practiced at Manga in Muscat prior to going out on a raid; the object of the dance was to "warm up" for combat to come.^[13] Also, on the Arabian peninsula a dance named ard recalls pre-Islamic tribal battles. Two rows of men face one another, clapping, singing and dancing in a lively manner, accompanied by large frame drums. At the peak of the dance two swordsmen perform a duel between the rows of dancers. Generally speaking, a number of dances (also known as razfah or ayyala) of Bedouin origin use weapons and have achieved modern popularity in the Arab Gulf states and are associated with festive occasions among the no-Bedouin sedentary population^[14]

In Iran there exists the Çûb-Bâzî ("stick game"; or raqs-e çûb, "stick dance"), a dance form that probably has its origins in reenactments of combat. Essentially, an attacker and a defender duel with poles. The çûb-bâzî is “…both a dance and a show of skill and bravery; participants are judged by their abilities in the combat aspects, as well as by their grace in executing the dance movements.”^[15]

[edit] Africa

See also: Nguni stick fighting and Zulu#Zulu music

In South Africa, such dances as the Zulu Indlamu, the traditional dance most often associated with Zulu culture, is performed with drums and full traditional attire and is derived from the war dances of the warriors. Also, the military influence of the warrior King Shaka is reflected in demonstrations of stick fighting (umshiza) with which the male teenagers and men settle their personal differences in a public duel.

The Jerusema (or Mbenede) dance of the Zezuru people in Zimbabwe is an interesting kind of hybrid war dance--"hybrid" in the sense that music and dance formed a part of the actual battle-field preparations, themselves, as well as of the ritual dance recalling the battle.^[16] (The Zezuru are one of the Shona peoples who were the builders of the great monuments of the Monomotapa kingdom in Zimbabwe between the 10th and 15th centuries.) The dance is a re-creation of a battle strategy developed by the Zezuru in the 19th century against incursions of other tribes in the wake of colonialist expansion of the Boers. The dance, itself, recalls the music and dance used as a diversionary tactic on the battlefield to distract the enemy while Zezuru warriors maneuvered into position; thus, the ritual dance involves the music and dance of the “distractors” as well as warriors with weapon moving into position.

Ethiopia has a long, historical reputation as a place where the weapon dance plays an important cultural role. According to Lucian, a Greek writer from the second century, “The Ethiopians dance also during the battle. The Ethiopian never shoots his arrow without dancing and making a menacing gesture beforehand. He wants to frighten the enemy by his dance beforehand.” The broad range of weapon dances includes the hota jumping dance of Amharic males; the attack dance of the Hailefo; the stick-dance of the Kullo; the Beroronsi Hama Haban, a dramatic dagger dance of the Esa; and the shire, the saber dance of the Tigrean nomadic shepherds.^[17]

[edit] Australia and Polynesia

In Australia,^[18] there are aboriginal dances that reenact hunting and combat using traditional weapons such as the boomerang. Sometimes two boomerangs are clapped together as a musical instrument to provide sounds for dances.^[19]

The Nifo oti or Samoan fire knife dance is also a kind of weapon dance.

The kailao is a standing male war dance of Tonga. The kailao is performed by men (less commonly women also perform it with the men as a mixed dance), who carry clubs or fighting sticks. The performers dance in a fierce manner to emulate combat, all to the accompaniment of a slit drum or a tin box. Additional idiophonic percussion is provided by strung rattles worn on the anklets of the dancers, and the clashing together of the wooden implements of war, which today are either sticks or mock weapons. The dance is unusual for Tonga in that it lacks recited poetry as accompaniment, which fact is taken to mean that it was imported to Tonga from elsewhere.^[20]

[edit] North and Central America

See also: Ghost Dance

So-called “war dances” of indigenous North American tribes may also be classified as weapon dances.^[21] Recent interest in preserving Native American traditions has led to such groups as The Warriors of AniKituhwa, a Cherokee dance group who recreate Cherokee dances, including the war dance, do research and offer dance workshops for their community. A dance such as the Comanche Sun Dance of the 1870s was an invocation of invulnurability to the White Man's bullets; the dance was a preliminary ritual to battle and would be a war dance and, hence, a weapon dance.^[22]

Also, the moresca (or morisca) (above) exists in some areas in the Americas that used to be Spanish colonies--Mexico, for example.^[23] In the Jamiltepec region of Mexico, there exists perhaps the most colorful version of that kind of dance, the Chareos dance. It represents a battle between Moors, led by Pilates, and Christians, led by James, the apostle. Sixteen male dancers take part and the dancer who plays the part of James appears as a horse rider and wears a costume that incorporates a white horse. The dancers wear ostrich feathers on their heads, a peacock feather at the front, white cotton square over their shoulders, velvet trousers decorated with gold brocade over white cotton pants and carry a machete. In addition, the leader has a hat with a small mirror and a white feather headdress. Two men at the front carry two red flags and two white flags, red symbolizing the blood spilt by James' soldiers and white symbolizing the peace that reigned after the Christian victory. The sounds of drums and flutes accompany the dance. These dances that pit Christian against Moor are almost certainly Christianized versions of earlier, pre-Cortez dances that ritualized the battle between the tiger and the eagle.^[24]

Some dances that abound at Carnival and Corpus Christi fiestas go back to pre-Conquest ritual combat dances of the Aztecs. For example, during the 15th month of the Aztec calendar, Huitzilopochtli, god of the sun and war was honored by real duels between slave victims and mimed battles among masked boy votaries.^[6] Also, among the Náhuatl-speaking people in the Pacific Ocean region of Michoacán, there is the cuauileros dance (the cudgelers' dance).The performance of this dance represents a battle between Aztecs and Spaniards, and dancers perform with rattles made of thin metal plates and wooden cudgels.^[25]

[edit] South America

The landscape of all dance in a large country such as Brazil is rich and complex due to the mixing of three separate traditions—Indian native, Black African, and Portuguese.^[26] In Brazil, the African influence on Brazilian folkdances is considerable. For example, the capoeira – a dance like fighting style -- and the maculelê fighting dance are strongly reminiscent of African dances. Capoeira is of particular interest. In the 1800s, Capoeira was played mostly by slaves who had been brought from West Central Africa and was a complex form of social interaction, expressing the participants' physical skills and spiritual essence, involving the gods and the spirits of the ancestral fathers. The participants played during festivals and holidays, jumping and leaping in front of musical bands, military troops, and religious processions. This dance “game” was considered dangerous to public order and was eventually criminalized in the late 1800s.^[27] Today, capoeira has staged somewhat of a comeback and is even studied in dance academies as part of a general movement to rejuvenate folk traditions.

The sticks used as mock weapons in some of these dances also serve as percussion instruments.^[28] In the southern state of Rio Grande do Sul, the machete, a tool used to cut jungle brush, is used in a dance called dança dos facões (dance of the machetes). In this dance (performed only by men), the dancers knock their machetes while dancing, simulating a battle.

[edit] Notes and references

[edit] Additional reading

• Highwater, Jamake. (1996) Dance: Rituals of Experience. Oxford Uni. Press. ISBN 0-19-511205-9
• Khokar, Ashish Mohan. (2003) Folk Dance Tribal Ritual and Martial Forms. Rupa. ISBN 81-291-0097-5
• Laubin, Reginald. (1989) "Indian Dances of North America: Their Importance in Indian Life" in Civilization of the American Indian Series. University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 0-8061-2172-6
• Tribbhuwan, Preeti. Tribal Dances of India. Discovery Pub. House. ISBN 81-7141-443-5
• National Museum of the American Indian (ed. Charlotte Heth). (1993) Native American Dance: Ceremonies and Social Traditions. Fulcrum Publishing. ISBN 1-56373-021-9
• Inglehearn. Madeleine. (1986) "Swedish Sword Dances in the 16th and 17th Centuries" in Early Music, Vol. 14, No. 3. (Aug., 1986), pp. 367-372.

[edit] External links

• Zulu dances
• Native American, aboriginal and Maori dance
• Dances from Aboriginal Australia
• Portrait of the Greek Dance