Walden Two
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Walden Two is a novel published in 1948 by B. F. Skinner, which described a fictional utopia based on psychological principles. In it B.F.Skinner proposed the application of psychological principles to solving human problems. In the novel he refers to this approach as 'the science of human behavior' now known as The Experimental Analysis of Behavior (TEAB), or Behavior Analysis.
Skinner's 1938 book, The Behavior of Organisms ended with 'let him extrapolate who will' and did not touch upon the extension of operant principles to human affairs. In a dramatic about face, Skinner offered up this conceptualization of a pilot experiment in cultural engineering in his fictionalized utopia. One source indicated that the book was written as a sort of response to a challenge to the problem of returning GIs from the war. Two such GIs figure prominently in the story.
Initially rejected, Skinner got a publisher to agree to its publication on the condition that he write a textbook for them as well. This agreement produced the textbook Science and Human Behavior which relates to some of the more technical aspects of the novel such as Self Control. Self Control occupies all of chapter XV in Science and Human Behavior and is mentioned extensively in Walden Two.
Walden Two is largely a narrative text that posits three characters in a walking tour of Walden Two. These three characters are Frazier, Burris and Castle. Frazier is the founder of the community and tour guide and explains the community in detail. Burris and Castle are visiting professors from a local college. Burris and Castle are professors of Psychology and Philosophy respectively. As they discuss Walden Two we, the reader, get a full description of the community and its design which is supplemented by descriptions of the community members in action. Members of the community are described doing things like swimming, playing chess, playing in a string quartet, putting on a choral production of Bach's B-Minor Mass, "simply relaxing" and doing nothing.
Walden Two is offered as a lifestyle that, by design, doesn't foster competition, social strife and opposes war 'by creating a lifestyle that doesn't need it'. Here we have many echoes of the founding novel Walden. Like Thoreau's Walden, Walden Two is offered as a sort of civil disobedience. The evils of society are to be opposed by living a good, moral life.
Additionally, minimal consumption, rich social relationships, personal happiness, satisfying work and leisure are encouraged. A very strong and overt egalitarianism is mentioned in a variety of areas including the division of work, gender relations, and in the political structure.
Children are to be raised communally and are taught self-control techniques to handle jealousy, impatience and promote positive approachs to problems. Adult members, we are told, are also taught these techniques, which are supplemented with a community psychologist. Also there is the use of things like pamphlets which are refreshers in these techniques. In the novel Frazier mentions that he used such a pamphlet to help him with jealousy.
Skinner wrote,
- It is now widely recognized that great changes must be made in the American way of life [...] The choice is clear: either we do nothing and allow a miserable and probably catastrophic future to overtake us, or we use our knowledge about human behavior to create a social environment in which he shall live productive and creative lives and do so without jeopardizing the chances that those who follow us will be able to do the same. Something like a Walden Two would not be a bad start.
The novel's title is a reference to Henry David Thoreau's book Walden. In the novel, the Walden Community is mentioned as having the benefits of living in a place like Thoreau's Walden, but "with company". It is, as the book says, 'walden for two' - meaning a community and not a place of solitude. Originally, Skinner indicated that he wanted to title it The Sun is but a Morning Star but the publishers suggested the current title as an alternative.
The community is said to have run on a system that might be described as a Planner-Manager system. The Planners are three men and three women who have ten year terms. Planners obtain no special benefits for their role and no exemptions from work. All members, Planners included, must work at least one hour of physical labor a day for egalitarian and health reasons. All work is considered valuable. Planners have a sort of executive function in the community, they design and modify the principles which govern the community, have a sort of judicial function, and select Managers among other tasks.
Managers are the day to day government of the community whose jobs are largely to implement the community principles, requisition and manage labor, and ensure that the community keeps functioning. Neither Managers nor Planners are democratically elected. Managers are selected, we are told, based on skill and merit, and can only influence the Planners by selecting a range of candidates among whom the Planners select. Democracy, as a governing principle, in either its direct or representative form, is explicitly rejected in the novel for too many reasons to elaborate here.
The Walden Code, or Code, is the actual day to day elaborations of how life is to be lived, which includes minimum community standards for conduct, self-management and other details. The Code was designed by the Planners, and is agreed to by the members as a condition for membership.
Self-control is mentioned as a central principle in the government of the community, and is mentioned in some detail. The Walden Community has no police or prisons and avoids as much punishment in the control of its members as possible.
Three documents seem to unite the organizational structure of the community: a Platform, a constitution, and the Walden Code. The Platform, which is a general articulation of the founding principles, includes things like the need to experiment with our own lives and the need to seek non-political solutions to the problems of human living. The Constitution is an articulation of the Planner-Manager system, and the Code is the detailed day-to-day instructions for self-management.
The goal of the community is the creation of a Golden Age of civilization comprised of a revival of classical arts, music and literature. The preconditions for a Golden Age are suggested as being the components of life in Walden Two: an appreciative audience, an undemanding work life, and reasonable training in the arts: in short appreciate, leisure and education.
Sir Francis Bacon's Atlantis was described as the source of the inspiration for his book. Many authors are mentioned in Walden Two including Confucius, H.G.Wells, Sir Francis Bacon, Thorstein Veblen, and many more.
Skinner claimed to have written Walden Two in two weeks "in a white heat".
Actual communities based on or inspired by Walden Two that continue to thrive today include:
Twin Oaks is detailed in Kat Kinkade's book, Twin Oaks: A Walden Two Experiment. Originally started as a Walden Two community, it has since rejected its Walden Two position, however it still uses its modified Planner-Manager system as well as a system of labor credits based on the book.
Los Horcones is described as being 'Walden Two' inspired by their website, but appears to have rejected the Planner-Manager system in favor of what it describes as 'Personocracy'.
The book can be found by the ISBNs:
